Racism
1) Gramsci on Racism
Antonio Gramsci, the influential Italian Marxist philosopher, delved deeply into societal structures, emphasising how power dynamics are maintained and reproduced. Although Gramsci did not explicitly focus on racism in his writings, his ideas on hegemony and cultural domination provide a valuable framework for understanding racism’s role in society. Gramsci’s theories are integral to the study of racism, as they emphasise how dominant groups establish and perpetuate control not only through direct means like political and economic power but also through cultural and ideological influence. Racism, according to this model, is an ideological tool used to maintain social hierarchies and reinforce the status quo, enabling the ruling classes to secure their dominance across various facets of society.
Gramsci’s concept of hegemony is particularly relevant to understanding how racism operates as a structural force. Hegemony, in Gramsci’s terms, refers to the pervasive influence of dominant ideologies that shape cultural beliefs and social norms. By controlling cultural narratives, the ruling class can naturalise and normalise inequality, including racial hierarchies. This form of control is subtler yet more pervasive than coercive state power, as it creates a consensus where oppressed groups may internalise their subjugation as part of the natural order. This idea is significant for racism studies, as it highlights how deeply ingrained beliefs about race and hierarchy are propagated through culture, education, and media, perpetuating social divisions and making it difficult for subordinate groups to resist.
Furthermore, Gramsci’s emphasis on the “subaltern” offers an insightful perspective on marginalised racial groups. He used the term “subaltern” to describe social groups that lack access to power, resources, and the means of self-expression within society. These groups often include ethnic and racial minorities who experience exclusion from mainstream cultural, political, and economic institutions. Gramsci argued that subaltern groups are kept in their subordinate position through both overt oppression and the absence of a platform to voice their narratives. This marginalisation is enforced not only by social and legal structures but also by a cultural monopoly that devalues and silences their experiences. In the context of racism, Gramsci’s subaltern theory illuminates how racial minorities are systematically denied avenues for social and political empowerment, reinforcing their status as subjugated communities.
Gramsci’s ideas also align with the concept of “othering,” which describes how dominant groups define themselves by creating a contrasting “Other.” In racist ideologies, this “Other” is often constructed through negative stereotypes and dehumanising images that justify discrimination and exclusion. For Gramsci, this process is a means of maintaining cultural hegemony; by defining certain racial or ethnic groups as inferior or dangerous, dominant groups legitimise their privileged status and the exclusion of others from societal benefits. This ideological manipulation, underpinned by cultural narratives, makes racial inequality appear both natural and justified. Gramsci’s approach thus exposes how racism operates not just as individual prejudice but as an entrenched societal practice with cultural and political roots.
Another crucial aspect of Gramsci’s framework is his view on intellectuals and their role in society. Gramsci differentiated between “traditional” intellectuals, who reinforce the status quo, and “organic” intellectuals, who arise from oppressed groups and work to challenge dominant ideologies. In the fight against racism, organic intellectuals play a key role in articulating the experiences and aspirations of marginalised racial communities, challenging mainstream narratives that reinforce racial hierarchies. Gramsci believed that these intellectuals could foster a “counter-hegemony” by creating new ideas, symbols, and narratives that empower oppressed groups. Through this lens, anti-racist movements can be seen as part of a larger struggle to replace dominant, racially biased ideologies with inclusive, democratic cultural practices that recognise and value diversity.
In examining Gramsci’s ideas on civil society, one can also draw connections to the persistence of institutional racism. Gramsci viewed civil society—comprised of institutions like schools, media, and religious organisations—as a battleground where cultural dominance is contested. Civil society is where hegemonic values are reproduced and challenged, making it a critical site for understanding how racism persists. Schools, for instance, may propagate dominant cultural narratives that subtly reinforce racial biases, while media outlets may portray racial minorities in ways that support stereotypes. According to Gramsci’s analysis, these institutions must be transformed or countered for meaningful progress against racism. Anti-racist initiatives, therefore, often focus on reshaping these institutions to foster more equitable representations and opportunities for all racial groups.
Additionally, Gramsci’s ideas on “passive revolution” and social change provide insights into how racism may be reformed or resisted within a system that resists change. Gramsci argued that change could occur through gradual, sometimes reluctant adjustments rather than radical upheaval—a concept he termed “passive revolution.” In anti-racism efforts, this can be seen in reforms like affirmative action or diversity programmes, which aim to address inequalities without challenging the fundamental structure of society. Although these measures can improve the conditions of marginalised groups, Gramsci would likely argue that they fall short of creating genuine racial equality. Only by dismantling the cultural hegemony that sustains racial hierarchies can society move towards a comprehensive transformation of racial relations.
Gramsci’s analysis ultimately positions racism as a structural and ideological issue that must be understood in terms of power, culture, and hegemony. His theories invite us to examine not only overt acts of racial discrimination but also the subtle, pervasive forces that maintain racial inequality. Through concepts like hegemony, subalternity, and the role of intellectuals, Gramsci’s framework illuminates the complexities of racism and offers a powerful tool for analysing and addressing it within society. For Gramsci, dismantling racism requires a cultural shift—one that not only changes laws but transforms societal beliefs, practices, and institutions that perpetuate racial divisions.
2) Du Bois on Racism
W.E.B. Du Bois, a pioneering African American sociologist, historian, and civil rights activist, devoted much of his work to exploring the structural and psychological effects of racism in America and beyond. His ideas remain central to discussions of race and racism today, as they offer profound insights into the ways racial inequalities are embedded in social structures, economies, and the identities of both the oppressed and the oppressor. Du Bois’s exploration of racism was comprehensive, addressing everything from systemic exclusion to the internalised struggles within the African American community, and he saw race as a critical line dividing society. His work ultimately laid the foundation for critical race theory, showing that racism is not just a series of individual prejudices but a structural and historical force that shapes society profoundly.
One of Du Bois’s most famous concepts, the “double consciousness,” captures the psychological impact of racism on African Americans, who must navigate their lives under the gaze of a white-dominated society. Double consciousness, as Du Bois described, is the internal conflict experienced by oppressed people who must see themselves through the lens of a dominant group that perceives them as inferior. For African Americans, this means balancing their own identity with the identities imposed upon them by a society that systematically excludes and marginalises them. The concept sheds light on the unique inner struggles faced by those subject to racism, who must contend not only with external barriers but with internalised feelings of inadequacy and a fractured sense of self. Du Bois’s double consciousness reveals how racism impacts the psyche of the oppressed, compelling them to constantly navigate an internal conflict of belonging.
In his landmark work The Souls of Black Folk, Du Bois discusses the “veil” as a metaphor for the racial divide in America. He describes the veil as a symbolic separation that distorts how African Americans are perceived by white society and how they perceive themselves. The veil obscures understanding and perpetuates stereotypes and misconceptions, reinforcing racial barriers by preventing mutual recognition and empathy between races. Du Bois argued that African Americans live within this veil, invisible to mainstream society except through the distortions of racial prejudice. This notion remains relevant in understanding how racial stereotypes and biases are perpetuated within societies, often subtly obscuring the reality of Black lives and contributing to alienation. By using the veil as a metaphor, Du Bois illuminates the social and psychological isolation faced by African Americans as a result of systemic racism.
Economic inequality and labour exploitation were also central themes in Du Bois’s critique of racism. He argued that economic structures in America and globally were inherently racist, designed to keep Black people at the bottom of the social and economic hierarchy. Du Bois analysed how slavery, sharecropping, and later forms of labour segregation were deliberately engineered to benefit the white elite and disenfranchise Black workers. He contended that racial inequality could not be fully addressed without dismantling these economic systems and creating opportunities for economic equity. For Du Bois, racial discrimination was inextricably linked to economic exploitation, with capitalism itself dependent on racial divisions to maintain control and secure profits. His analysis anticipated later developments in Marxist and critical race theory, which similarly view racism as deeply intertwined with economic and class-based structures.
Another crucial aspect of Du Bois’s thinking on racism was his global perspective, as he viewed racism as a phenomenon that transcended American borders. He recognised that the issues of race and colonialism were interconnected, with people of colour across the globe experiencing similar forms of oppression and exploitation. Du Bois was an early advocate for Pan-Africanism, believing that African and African-descended people worldwide shared a common struggle against colonialism, imperialism, and racial oppression. He saw racism as a tool used by Western imperialist powers to dominate and extract resources from non-white populations, creating an international system of racial inequality. This global view of racism helped Du Bois connect the Black experience in America with the struggles of colonised peoples elsewhere, positioning racism as a central force in global politics and economics.
Education, for Du Bois, was another battleground in the fight against racism, and he stressed the importance of intellectual development and cultural pride among African Americans. Du Bois argued that racial equality could not be achieved without elevating the intellectual and cultural status of Black people, challenging both internalised and externalised stereotypes of inferiority. He advocated for higher education and liberal arts training for African Americans, believing that such knowledge would empower Black communities to fight for their rights and demand social change. Du Bois was a fierce critic of the vocational training model promoted by figures like Booker T. Washington, as he believed that limiting Black people to manual labour perpetuated their subordinate status. Education, in Du Bois’s view, was essential to dismantling the ideologies of racial inferiority and empowering African Americans to lead their communities.
Du Bois also addressed the media’s role in perpetuating racism and influencing public perceptions of African Americans. He was deeply critical of how mainstream media perpetuated harmful stereotypes, portraying Black people as violent, lazy, or morally corrupt. Du Bois understood that these representations served to reinforce racial hierarchies and justify discriminatory practices. He saw the media as a tool for social control, shaping public opinion and legitimising racial prejudice by depicting African Americans through a distorted lens. Du Bois called for Black-owned newspapers and media outlets that could present a more accurate and respectful portrayal of Black life, giving African Americans the means to share their narratives and challenge mainstream biases. His insights into media continue to be relevant, as the media remains a powerful force in shaping racial discourse and public perceptions of minority communities.
In Du Bois’s later years, he became increasingly disillusioned with America’s capacity for racial reform, turning to socialism and even, in some respects, Soviet communism, as he believed that capitalism inherently perpetuated racial inequality. He argued that racial justice could only be achieved through a complete restructuring of society, one that would eliminate economic exploitation and enable true equality. This radical shift in his ideology reflected his growing conviction that institutional reforms alone would be insufficient to address the depth of racial injustice. Du Bois’s turn towards socialism and eventual self-exile to Ghana underscored his belief that racism was entrenched in the very fabric of American society and that achieving racial equality would require a global, systemic overhaul.
Du Bois’s contributions to the study of racism remain foundational, offering insights that extend beyond individual prejudice to the broader societal forces that sustain racial inequality. His concepts of double consciousness, the veil, and Pan-Africanism laid the groundwork for understanding racism as a complex, multi-layered phenomenon with cultural, psychological, and economic dimensions. For Du Bois, combating racism required more than changing individual attitudes; it demanded a complete transformation of social, economic, and political structures. His legacy endures in the fields of sociology, African American studies, and critical race theory, continuing to inspire scholars and activists in their pursuit of racial justice and equality.
3) Frantz Fanon on Racism
Frantz Fanon, a French West Indian psychiatrist, philosopher, and revolutionary, made profound contributions to understanding racism, especially in the context of colonialism. Fanon’s works explore how colonialism inflicts psychological trauma on the colonised, fostering internalised inferiority and perpetuating violent social structures. His approach to racism emphasises both the internal (psychological) and external (socio-political) dimensions of oppression, revealing how these layers reinforce each other to uphold racial hierarchies. Fanon’s most significant works, Black Skin, White Masks (1952) and The Wretched of the Earth (1961), examine the ways colonialism shapes identity and culture, arguing that true liberation requires a radical rejection of colonial values and institutions.
In Black Skin, White Masks, Fanon examines the psychological effects of racism, focusing on the internalisation of racial inferiority among colonised peoples. He argues that racism creates a “black inferiority complex,” leading people of colour to measure their worth according to white, Western standards. This process, according to Fanon, involves “epidermalisation” – a reduction of one’s identity to the colour of their skin, whereby the Black person is “othered” and seen as fundamentally different and inferior. This internalised racism causes a painful split within the individual, forcing them to exist in a liminal space between their authentic self and the image imposed on them by a racist society. Fanon’s insights into this psychological burden illuminate the lasting damage of racial hierarchies on personal identity and mental health.
Fanon’s concept of the “colonised mind” further explores the psychological impact of colonialism on oppressed individuals and societies. In a colonial context, he argues, the colonised subject is trapped in a cycle of self-loathing and dependency, which is reinforced by constant cultural and political domination. Colonised people, according to Fanon, may internalise the values of their oppressors, aspiring to emulate white culture while viewing their own cultural heritage as inferior or primitive. This dynamic alienates the colonised individual from their roots, creating a fractured sense of self that Fanon believed was central to the functioning of colonial oppression. Fanon’s exploration of the colonised mind contributes significantly to understanding how racism operates beyond the physical, reaching deep into the psyche of the oppressed.
In The Wretched of the Earth, Fanon analyses the economic and social structures of colonialism, portraying them as inherently violent and exploitative. He argues that colonialism functions through both physical violence and systemic racism, which are used to control and exploit colonised populations. Colonial economies, according to Fanon, are structured to benefit the colonisers at the expense of the colonised, who are forced into roles of servitude or low-paying labour. This economic exploitation is justified by a racist ideology that portrays colonised people as inferior or less civilised. Fanon saw this dual exploitation as essential to the maintenance of colonial power, as economic disenfranchisement reinforces social hierarchies, keeping colonised populations impoverished and dependent.
Fanon’s critique of racism also extends to what he calls the “Manichean divide” in colonial societies, where the world is split into binaries: coloniser and colonised, white and Black, civilised and uncivilised. This binary logic justifies violent oppression by dehumanising the colonised and portraying them as a threat to the colonial order. Fanon explains that this ideological division enforces strict separations within society, reinforcing racial hierarchies and legitimising the use of extreme measures to maintain control. This divide has lasting effects, as it instils fear and mistrust within both groups, making genuine reconciliation and equality difficult even after formal decolonisation. Fanon’s analysis of the Manichean divide provides a valuable framework for understanding how racial divisions are systematised and normalised within societies marked by historical oppression.
Another important aspect of Fanon’s work on racism is his perspective on violence as a means of liberation. Fanon controversially argued that violence, when directed at colonial structures, can be a necessary and cathartic force for the oppressed, helping them reclaim their humanity and autonomy. He believed that in a system sustained by violence, the colonised must resist through similar means to dismantle the racist ideologies that justify their subjugation. This perspective on violence reflects Fanon’s view that colonisation inflicts a deep psychological trauma that can only be healed through a complete rejection of the colonial structure. Fanon’s stance has sparked debate, but his views underscore the extent to which he saw racism and colonialism as forms of profound and violent social injustice, leaving no option for halfway measures in the struggle for equality.
Fanon’s exploration of language and its role in perpetuating racism is another critical element of his work. In Black Skin, White Masks, he discusses how language can be a tool of oppression, as it shapes one’s identity and worldview. Speaking the coloniser’s language, he argues, alienates the colonised individual from their cultural heritage, forcing them to conform to a foreign framework. In a colonial society, language is used to impose Western values and standards on colonised people, who may feel pressured to adopt the language and mannerisms of the dominant group to be accepted or respected. For Fanon, this linguistic colonisation is a powerful form of psychological control, one that erodes cultural identities and reinforces racial inferiority. His analysis of language highlights how racism extends into everyday interactions, influencing self-perception and social dynamics.
Fanon’s work also anticipated the concept of “racial objectification,” where the colonised individual is reduced to a racialised stereotype by the coloniser. In Black Skin, White Masks, he recounts his personal experiences of being objectified, describing how his Blackness became the sole defining feature of his identity in the eyes of others. This objectification reduces people of colour to “objects” rather than recognising them as complex individuals, allowing the coloniser to maintain a sense of superiority and control. Fanon argues that this objectification is dehumanising, stripping the individual of agency and reducing them to a caricature. His insights into racial objectification remain relevant today, as they reveal how racism operates not only through overt discrimination but through subtle, everyday interactions that reinforce stereotypes and deny individuality.
Fanon’s legacy in the study of racism is vast, influencing fields ranging from postcolonial studies to critical race theory. His insistence on the interconnectedness of psychology, culture, and economic exploitation provides a multi-dimensional approach to understanding racism. Fanon argued that dismantling racism requires addressing not just individual prejudice but the structural and cultural forces that perpetuate inequality. His works underscore the need for radical, transformative change that liberates the oppressed from both external control and internalised beliefs of inferiority. Fanon’s emphasis on reclaiming identity, rejecting colonial values, and fostering cultural pride has inspired generations of scholars and activists, positioning his ideas as crucial to ongoing discussions of race, resistance, and decolonisation.
4) Fredrick Douglas on Racism
Frederick Douglass, an iconic abolitionist, orator, and writer, dedicated his life to fighting against the horrors of slavery and the pervasive reality of racism in America. Born into slavery in 1818, Douglass personally experienced the brutality and dehumanisation that racist ideologies fostered, which shaped his mission to expose and dismantle such systemic oppression. Through his speeches, writings, and political activism, Douglass articulated a fierce critique of racism, advocating for the universal application of rights and freedoms. He argued that racism, particularly as it was codified through slavery and legal discrimination, was a blight on American ideals and human morality.
Douglass viewed slavery as the epitome of institutional racism, reducing Black people to property status and justifying their exploitation based on racial difference. His narratives and speeches vividly recount the physical and psychological torment enslaved individuals endured, challenging contemporary racist beliefs that depicted Black people as naturally inferior or subhuman. Douglass rejected the pseudo-scientific and religious justifications for slavery, arguing instead that slavery was a system sustained by power and greed, underpinned by racism. He worked tirelessly to dismantle the idea that Black people were inherently different from whites, insisting on their shared humanity and capability.
Central to Douglass’s critique of racism was his understanding of freedom and the importance of self-determination. He often spoke about the psychological impact of slavery and discrimination, describing how systemic racism stripped individuals of agency and identity. Douglass argued that racism sought to erase Black autonomy, reducing Black people to a monolithic group defined by stereotypes and stripped of individuality. For Douglass, true freedom required the ability to define oneself, and he believed that breaking down the structures of racism was essential for Black people to achieve this self-actualisation. His own journey from enslavement to self-education and advocacy illustrated the potential that freedom could unlock.
Douglass also denounced the hypocrisy of American society, which professed ideals of liberty and equality while denying these to Black citizens. His famous speech, “What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?” is a powerful indictment of American hypocrisy, as he highlighted the contradiction of celebrating freedom in a nation that enslaved millions. He argued that the persistence of slavery and racial discrimination represented a betrayal of American principles, undermining the credibility of democracy itself. Douglass believed that racism was not only a moral failing but a fundamental weakness in the nation’s social and political fabric, threatening the legitimacy of its democratic ideals.
In addition to condemning slavery, Douglass addressed the ongoing racism that Black people faced even after emancipation. He was aware that abolition alone would not end racial discrimination and argued that true liberation required dismantling the social attitudes and legal structures that perpetuated inequality. Douglass advocated for civil rights, equal protection under the law, and educational opportunities for Black Americans, recognising that freedom without equality was hollow. His vision of freedom was holistic, extending beyond the abolition of slavery to encompass full citizenship and the right to participate equally in society.
Douglass’s views on education were a significant part of his critique of racism, as he saw knowledge as a pathway to liberation. He believed that one of the primary ways racism maintained itself was by denying Black people access to education, effectively keeping them disenfranchised and dependent. Douglass famously taught himself to read and write despite prohibitions against educating enslaved people, and he championed literacy and education as vital tools for empowerment. He argued that racism thrived in ignorance, and he encouraged Black Americans to pursue knowledge as a means of resistance. Douglass also saw education as crucial for challenging the stereotypes that upheld racist beliefs, demonstrating that Black people were capable, intelligent, and deserving of equal treatment.
Frederick Douglass’s philosophy on resistance and protest also informs his approach to combating racism. He believed in the power of public speaking and written advocacy to confront oppressive structures, but he was also practical about the need for political action and systemic change. Douglass pushed for legislative reforms, legal protections, and the enforcement of rights through the courts, recognising that social change required more than moral persuasion. His advocacy extended to supporting Black soldiers’ participation in the Civil War, seeing it as a powerful statement of equality and commitment to the nation. Douglass believed that active participation in society, coupled with legal and political reform, was essential to dismantle racist structures.
Douglass also believed that white Americans had a responsibility to combat racism and work toward an inclusive society. He argued that racism harmed not only Black people but also white society by promoting an unjust hierarchy that contradicted the democratic values America claimed to uphold. Douglass called on white Americans to examine their prejudices, reject racist ideologies, and take an active role in promoting equality. His speeches often appealed to the moral conscience of white audiences, urging them to live up to the principles of justice and equality. Douglass’s inclusive approach to activism helped lay the groundwork for future civil rights movements by framing the fight against racism as a universal struggle for human rights.
The legacy of Frederick Douglass’s work on racism remains profound, as his writings and speeches continue to inspire social justice movements worldwide. Douglass’s commitment to equality, his eloquent denouncement of slavery and racial discrimination, and his vision for a more just society resonate in modern discussions on race. His belief in the transformative power of education, self-determination, and active citizenship echoes in contemporary movements that seek to challenge systemic racism and empower marginalised communities. As one of the earliest and most prominent voices against racial injustice, Douglass’s contributions offer both historical insights and enduring lessons for building a world free of racial oppression.
5) Sojourner Truth on Racism
Sojourner Truth, an African-American abolitionist and women’s rights activist, left a powerful legacy through her outspoken advocacy against racism and oppression in 19th-century America. Born into slavery in 1797 as Isabella Baumfree, Truth’s early life was marked by the severe injustices of the American slave system, including separation from her family and frequent abuse. However, Truth found her voice in her later years after gaining her freedom, transforming into a fearless speaker against the twin oppressions of racism and sexism. Her speeches and activism highlighted the intersectionality of these struggles, paving the way for an expanded understanding of how social structures uphold discrimination.
Truth’s most famous speech, “Ain’t I a Woman?” delivered in 1851 at the Women’s Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio, underscores her ability to speak to both racial and gendered discrimination simultaneously. In this speech, she challenged prevailing notions that women were inherently weak and delicate, pointing out the physical and emotional strength she displayed as a Black woman enduring slavery. By asking, “Ain’t I a woman?” Truth argued that Black women were denied the social and political rights afforded to white women, thus exposing the hypocrisy of a women’s rights movement that often excluded women of colour. Her rhetorical question powerfully conveyed that racism and sexism worked in tandem to dehumanise Black women, excluding them from societal recognition as both human beings and women.
A crucial aspect of Truth’s activism was her personal narrative, through which she exposed the horrors of slavery and the ways it fuelled systemic racism. Unlike some abolitionists of her time, Truth drew on her own experiences of being enslaved, sold, and abused, creating an emotional and direct connection with her audience. By sharing her life story, Truth brought the inhumanity of slavery into stark relief, arguing that its impact extended far beyond the physical to deeply affect the soul and spirit of the enslaved. Her accounts also exposed the lasting effects of slavery on Black families, as she recounted how enslaved mothers, including herself, were often forcibly separated from their children. This, she argued, was not just an individual trauma but a structural attack on Black communities designed to erode their familial bonds and humanity.
Truth’s activism extended beyond abolitionism to advocate for the full social and economic rights of African-Americans, stressing the importance of self-sufficiency and land ownership. She recognised that even after the abolition of slavery, Black Americans would face significant racial discrimination that restricted their access to economic resources and opportunities. She thus argued for reparative measures, including the allocation of land to freed Black people so they could become self-sustaining and not remain economically dependent on white society. This foresight was prescient, as she recognised that racial injustice would not end with the formal abolition of slavery but would evolve into other forms of systemic discrimination, such as sharecropping and segregation.
Throughout her life, Truth’s advocacy was deeply spiritual, rooted in her belief in a just and loving God who opposed racial oppression. She interpreted her mission as divinely inspired, viewing herself as a “conductor” for God’s truth on Earth. Her faith empowered her to speak truth to power, challenging religious institutions and leaders who justified slavery or remained silent on racial injustice. Truth’s use of religious language appealed to both Black and white audiences, many of whom identified with Christian values. By framing racism as not only a social injustice but a sin against humanity, she called on Americans to view the fight against racism as a moral and spiritual duty, rather than merely a political one.
Sojourner Truth also drew attention to how Black women faced a unique form of discrimination that was compounded by both their race and gender. She noted that while white women struggled for rights, Black women endured an even harsher reality, doubly marginalised by the systems of white supremacy and patriarchy. Her observations about the intersection of racism and sexism offered early insights into what would later be termed “intersectionality.” Truth’s insistence on recognising the specific struggles of Black women highlighted the need for a more inclusive social justice movement that addressed the overlapping dimensions of oppression faced by women of colour.
In her later years, Truth remained an advocate for racial equality, focusing her efforts on practical improvements in the lives of Black people, such as advocating for desegregated public transport and equal treatment in housing and employment. Her activism extended into the Reconstruction era, where she continued to challenge the government to fulfil its promises to formerly enslaved people. Although the abolition of slavery marked a significant victory, Truth was keenly aware that true freedom required not only legal but economic and social equality. Her advocacy in this period reflected her understanding that racial justice could not be achieved solely through policy changes, but required a transformation of societal attitudes and practices.
Truth’s rhetorical power lay in her ability to challenge both white abolitionists and women’s rights advocates, holding them accountable to their professed ideals. She often criticised the women’s rights movement for neglecting the struggles of Black women, reminding white feminists that the freedom and dignity they sought should extend to all women. Her fearless approach made her a polarising figure, as she was unafraid to question the biases of even her allies. However, her commitment to justice over popularity set a precedent for later social movements, demonstrating the importance of standing firm on principles, even when they challenge popular sentiments within one’s own community.
Sojourner Truth’s legacy remains influential in discussions about race, gender, and intersectionality. Her life and activism illustrated the interconnectedness of social oppressions, arguing that true justice must address multiple layers of discrimination. Truth’s perspective on racism, as something that permeates both the individual and systemic levels, continues to resonate, as her insights highlight the need for a broad, inclusive approach to social justice that recognises the unique struggles of marginalised groups. Through her powerful speeches, personal courage, and unyielding sense of justice, Sojourner Truth left an indelible mark on American society, inspiring future generations to continue the fight against racism and sexism in all forms.
6) Sartre on Racism
Jean-Paul Sartre, the French existentialist philosopher, provided a critical and nuanced perspective on racism, especially through the lens of existentialism and social philosophy. Sartre’s ideas on racism primarily appear in his essays, particularly Anti-Semite and Jew (1946), where he explores antisemitism as a prototype of racial hatred, examining how racism operates psychologically, socially, and politically. Sartre contends that racism is not just a set of prejudiced beliefs but a deliberate construction to alienate and oppress others, arguing that it is driven by a need to objectify individuals and deny them freedom and agency. By framing racism within existentialist terms, Sartre brings attention to how racial hatred serves as a mechanism for the racist to evade responsibility and construct a self-justifying worldview.
Sartre’s understanding of racism is deeply rooted in his concept of “bad faith,” where individuals deny their own freedom by refusing to confront uncomfortable truths about themselves. For Sartre, the racist lives in “bad faith” by constructing an oversimplified and static image of the Other – in this case, the racialised individual – to avoid examining their own fears, insecurities, and biases. By reducing a person to a racial or ethnic stereotype, the racist avoids the existential challenge of recognising the Other as a unique, free individual. This reduction of identity, Sartre argues, enables the racist to feel superior without acknowledging their own flaws or taking accountability for their actions. Racism, in Sartre’s view, is thus a form of self-deception, a means for the individual to sidestep the existential responsibility of recognising others as fully human.
In Anti-Semite and Jew, Sartre further explores how racial prejudice is often rooted in a desire for social stability and homogeneity. The racist, according to Sartre, seeks to maintain rigid boundaries between groups to avoid confronting the complexities and fluidities of human identity. He argues that individuals who adhere to racist ideologies fear difference because it threatens their perception of an ordered, controlled society. By scapegoating minorities, they attempt to create a sense of unity and security within the dominant group. Sartre points out that this pursuit of stability is illusory, as it relies on an artificial distinction that disregards the freedom and diversity inherent in human existence. Racism, then, is an attempt to create a false sense of coherence in society by excluding those who challenge the status quo.
Sartre’s work also examines the role of the “look” or “gaze” in creating racial hierarchies. In his existential framework, the gaze of the Other has the power to objectify and define an individual, and Sartre applies this idea to racial contexts, suggesting that the racist gaze dehumanises by reducing the racialised individual to a mere object. For instance, a racist may look upon a person of another race and see only a stereotype or a socially constructed image, rather than a person with agency and autonomy. This objectification, Sartre argues, is central to the experience of racial oppression, as it confines individuals within narrow definitions that deny their full humanity. Sartre’s analysis of the gaze illuminates how racism functions on an interpersonal level, enforcing hierarchies through everyday interactions and perceptions.
Moreover, Sartre critiques the passive role that society often plays in perpetuating racism, which he describes as a social structure that both enables and enforces discrimination. In his view, societal institutions and cultural narratives reinforce racial prejudice by legitimising stereotypes and enabling discriminatory practices. Sartre highlights how racism is embedded in laws, educational systems, and media, all of which subtly influence individuals to view racial minorities through a prejudiced lens. This “collective bad faith” is a widespread denial of freedom and responsibility, where society at large chooses to overlook its complicity in sustaining racial hierarchies. Sartre challenges individuals to confront this collective bad faith by recognising their role within oppressive systems and actively working to dismantle them.
Sartre’s existentialist approach to racism also emphasises the importance of freedom in overcoming discrimination. For Sartre, freedom is a fundamental aspect of human existence, and any ideology that restricts this freedom – such as racism – is inherently unethical. Racism, in his view, not only dehumanises the oppressed but also limits the freedom of the oppressor, as it traps them in a worldview based on prejudice and hate. Sartre argues that genuine freedom requires individuals to reject racism and embrace a sense of shared humanity. This rejection involves acknowledging the Other’s freedom and complexity rather than confining them to racial categories. By promoting an ethic of responsibility and recognition, Sartre’s philosophy calls for a society where people interact as equals, free from the artificial constraints imposed by racial prejudice.
In his later works and political writings, Sartre became increasingly vocal about the role of colonialism in perpetuating racism. He argued that colonialism was not just an economic system but a racialised social order designed to dehumanise and exploit non-European populations. In his preface to Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth, Sartre condemns the brutality of colonialism and its justification through racist ideologies, arguing that colonial powers create a dehumanised image of the colonised to legitimise oppression. Sartre thus extended his critique of racism to a global scale, viewing it as a tool of imperialism that sustains economic and political inequalities. His anti-colonial stance reflected his belief that racism is both a domestic and international phenomenon, deeply intertwined with systems of power and exploitation.
Sartre’s reflections on anti-racism also highlight the need for solidarity across racial and cultural boundaries. He believed that overcoming racism required individuals from different backgrounds to recognise their shared struggle for freedom and equality. Sartre supported the idea of collective resistance, where oppressed groups unite against systems of discrimination. He argued that solidarity is essential for dismantling racism because it challenges the divisive narratives that uphold racial hierarchies. Sartre’s call for solidarity resonates with contemporary movements for racial justice, as he recognised that fighting racism demands a united, inclusive effort that transcends individual identities and focuses on common humanity.
7) De Beauvoir on Racism
Simone de Beauvoir, best known for her pioneering work on gender in The Second Sex, also explored themes that intersect with race and racism, particularly within her existentialist framework. Although she did not write a comprehensive work solely on racism, Beauvoir’s views on oppression, otherness, and freedom provide a strong foundation for understanding her perspective on racial discrimination. Beauvoir regarded racism as a manifestation of “othering,” where the dominant group constructs minority groups as “Others” to reinforce their own superiority. For Beauvoir, othering is a fundamental human tendency that becomes toxic when combined with structures of power, creating systems of discrimination and oppression that deny the humanity of certain groups.
Beauvoir’s concept of the “Other,” first articulated in The Second Sex, applies not only to gender but to any group relegated to a marginalised status by a dominant group. This “Othering” process, Beauvoir argues, is a way for individuals to assert their own identity and power by defining others as fundamentally different or inferior. In the context of racism, this dynamic is clearly at play, as racialised groups are often seen as embodying traits that reinforce stereotypes, justifying their exclusion from full participation in society. Beauvoir noted that the construction of the Other is an intentional act, used by dominant groups to validate their own sense of self while relegating those who are different to a secondary status. This view sheds light on how racism serves as a means of identity-building for the oppressor, even as it denies personhood to the oppressed.
For Beauvoir, the concept of freedom is central to existentialist ethics, and any form of discrimination that limits an individual’s freedom is inherently unethical. In her philosophy, genuine freedom is not just the freedom of the individual but the recognition of the freedom of others as well. Racism, therefore, violates the core principle of existentialist ethics by reducing individuals to stereotypes and denying their autonomy. Beauvoir held that when we deny others their freedom, we also limit our own, as we become complicit in creating a society based on false distinctions and artificial hierarchies. Racism, in her view, creates a system where both the oppressed and the oppressor are trapped in fixed identities that limit their potential for authentic self-expression.
Beauvoir was also critical of how societal structures perpetuate discrimination through implicit and explicit reinforcement of prejudice. Much like Sartre, she believed that racism is not only a personal failing but a social institution upheld by norms, laws, and cultural narratives. Beauvoir argued that society teaches people to see racial differences as fixed categories, often associating certain traits or stereotypes with particular races. These categories are then institutionalised, leading to systemic inequality in education, employment, healthcare, and justice. This societal complicity in racial discrimination reflects Beauvoir’s belief that oppression is not solely enacted by individuals but also embedded in structures that sustain hierarchies and inequalities, preventing oppressed groups from achieving full freedom.
Beauvoir’s reflections on colonialism add another dimension to her understanding of racism, as she critiqued how colonial powers used racial ideology to justify the exploitation of non-European societies. In her essays and political activism, Beauvoir condemned the colonial exploitation of African and Asian countries, noting how Western societies portrayed colonised people as inferior to justify their subjugation and dehumanisation. She argued that colonialism was not only an economic system but also a cultural and psychological one that reinforced racial stereotypes to uphold European superiority. Beauvoir recognised that colonialism and racism were mutually reinforcing, as the denigration of non-white people was used to legitimise their exploitation, while colonial rule perpetuated racial hierarchies and stereotypes in both colonised and coloniser societies.
In her later political work, Beauvoir expressed solidarity with civil rights movements and anti-colonial struggles, indicating her belief that the fight against racism was a moral imperative for anyone committed to justice and freedom. She saw racial discrimination as one of the most egregious violations of human rights, as it deprived individuals of their dignity, autonomy, and ability to define themselves. Beauvoir’s support for movements against racial oppression reflects her view that ethics requires a commitment to social justice, where the freedom of one group cannot come at the expense of another’s oppression. Her advocacy for oppressed groups globally underscores her belief that existentialist ethics is not only a philosophy of individual freedom but also one of collective liberation.
The influence of Beauvoir’s work on the intersection of race and gender is significant, as she recognised that oppressed groups often face overlapping forms of discrimination. Her insights into “double consciousness” – the awareness of one’s identity as seen by both oneself and an oppressor – parallels later concepts of intersectionality, which analyse how race, gender, and other aspects of identity interact in systems of oppression. While Beauvoir did not explicitly develop a theory of intersectionality, her observations about the compounded nature of discrimination have influenced subsequent feminist and anti-racist theories. By acknowledging the complexity of identity and the ways in which different forms of oppression intersect, Beauvoir’s work contributed to a more nuanced understanding of social justice.
Beauvoir’s perspective on collective action and solidarity also informs her view on how to combat racism. She believed that the fight against oppression required unity among oppressed groups, as well as support from those in privileged positions who reject systems of discrimination. Beauvoir argued that achieving freedom and equality necessitates collective resistance against structures that enforce racial and gender hierarchies. In this sense, her existentialist commitment to freedom goes beyond the individual to encompass a social and political dimension, where solidarity and mutual recognition are essential for dismantling oppressive systems. For Beauvoir, the struggle against racism and all forms of oppression is a shared responsibility that requires a commitment to universal justice.
