Scepticism
1) Scepticism in Ancient Greece
In Ancient Greece, the roots of scepticism can be traced back to the early thinkers who sought to question and critically examine the prevailing beliefs and knowledge of their time. One of the earliest and most notable figures in the realm of scepticism was Pyrrho of Elis (360-270 BCE). He founded the philosophical school known as Pyrrhonism, which emphasised the suspension of judgment and the avoidance of dogmatism. Pyrrho believed that human perception and reasoning were limited and subject to error, thus advocating for an attitude of perpetual doubt.
Another influential sceptic from this era was the philosopher Sextus Empiricus (c. 160-210 CE). He developed a comprehensive form of scepticism known as Pyrrhonian scepticism, which aimed to promote tranquillity (ataraxia) by withholding assent to any particular belief or philosophy. Sextus argued that since all human knowledge is fallible, it is prudent to refrain from accepting any proposition as absolutely true.
These ancient Greek sceptics were instrumental in shaping the intellectual landscape of their time. Their philosophical inquiries and the idea of questioning commonly accepted beliefs laid the groundwork for later schools of thought, such as the Hellenistic schools and early Western philosophy.
Scepticism in ancient Greece was not limited to philosophical circles but also extended to scientific and medical fields. Early Greek scientists, like Anaxagoras and Democritus, encouraged questioning and empirical observations to understand the natural world, paving the way for the scientific method.
The sceptical tradition in Ancient Greece also extended to the Sophists, who were known for their relativistic views on truth and knowledge. Protagoras, a prominent Sophist, famously stated, “Man is the measure of all things,” suggesting that truth and knowledge were subjective and depended on individual perspectives.
2) Scepticism in Christianity
Scepticism within the context of Christianity has been a recurring theme throughout its history, stemming from a tension between faith and reason. The relationship between faith and doubt has been a subject of contemplation among theologians, philosophers, and believers alike.
One of the earliest instances of scepticism in Christianity can be traced back to the early Church Fathers, such as Tertullian and Augustine. Tertullian, a second-century theologian, famously asked, “What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” His query encapsulated the struggle between Greek philosophy and Christian faith. The tension between the Greek philosophical tradition, which valued rational inquiry, and the Christian emphasis on divine revelation led to debates over the proper role of reason in matters of faith.
St. Augustine of Hippo, an influential Christian philosopher of the fourth century, grappled with the issue of doubt in his work “Confessions.” He explored the complexities of faith and questioned his own beliefs before ultimately embracing Christianity. Augustine’s introspective journey exemplified the struggle of many believers who faced doubts and uncertainties in their spiritual quest.
During the Middle Ages, the relationship between faith and reason became a focal point of philosophical and theological debates. Scholars like Anselm of Canterbury and Thomas Aquinas sought to reconcile faith with reason, promoting the idea that faith and reason could work together harmoniously to deepen one’s understanding of God and the world.
In the Reformation period, scepticism took on a new dimension as religious dissenters challenged the established doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned the authority of the Church, advocating for personal interpretations of the Bible and individual faith experiences. This shift contributed to the fragmentation of Christianity into various denominations, each with its own set of beliefs and interpretations.
In more recent times, the rise of modern science and secularism has posed challenges to certain aspects of Christian belief. Scientific discoveries and critical historical analysis have sometimes led to doubts about literal interpretations of religious texts and the compatibility of certain religious teachings with empirical evidence.
Nevertheless, scepticism in Christianity has also spurred theological reflections and the development of apologetics. Christian apologists engage with sceptical arguments and seek to provide reasoned responses to questions raised by non-believers and believers alike.
3) Scepticism in Muslim Thought
Scepticism, in the context of Muslim thought, has been a recurring theme that has shaped philosophical and theological discussions throughout Islamic history. Islamic scholars, like their counterparts in other religious traditions, grappled with questions concerning the nature of knowledge, the relationship between faith and reason, and the challenges posed by doubt.
One of the earliest manifestations of scepticism in Muslim thought can be found in the debates between rationalists (Mutakallimun) and traditionalists (Ahl al-Hadith) during the formative period of Islam. The rationalists emphasized the use of reason and logical arguments to understand religious matters, while the traditionalists sought to preserve the authenticity of religious teachings based on the sayings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad. These debates laid the groundwork for ongoing discussions on the role of reason and revelation in Islamic theology.
In the medieval period, Muslim philosophers and theologians engaged with Greek philosophy and incorporated elements of rationalism into Islamic thought. Scholars like Al-Farabi and Avicenna (Ibn Sina) were instrumental in blending Neoplatonic and Aristotelian ideas with Islamic theology. While they embraced reason as a means of understanding the world, they also acknowledged the limitations of human intellect when it came to comprehending divine mysteries.
During the same era, Islamic mystics, known as Sufis, embarked on a spiritual journey seeking direct experiential knowledge of God. Sufism, with its focus on inner introspection and mystical practices, has been regarded as a response to rationalistic approaches to religious knowledge. Sufi mystics often spoke of doubts and uncertainties on their path to divine union, underscoring the universality of sceptical inquiry in the pursuit of spiritual truth.
The advent of the modern period saw renewed encounters with Western philosophy and the challenges of modernity. Muslim scholars grappled with the impact of scientific discoveries and secular ideas on traditional religious beliefs. Some sought to reconcile Islamic teachings with modern thought, while others expressed scepticism towards certain aspects of Western ideas and their compatibility with Islamic principles.
Contemporary Muslim thinkers continue to engage with scepticism in various ways. Some focus on Islamic apologetics, addressing criticisms and sceptical arguments raised by non-Muslims. Others explore philosophical and theological topics related to epistemology, ethics, and the nature of God. Moreover, the rise of internet connectivity has provided a platform for discussions and debates on religious topics, allowing scepticism to find expression in online spaces.
4) Scepticism in Buddhism
Scepticism has played a significant role in the development of Buddhist thought, particularly concerning the nature of knowledge, the concept of self, and the path to enlightenment. From its early origins to the diverse schools of Buddhism that emerged over time, sceptical inquiry has been a driving force in shaping Buddhist philosophy and practice.
One of the central tenets of Buddhism is the doctrine of anatta or “non-self.” The Buddha taught that all phenomena, including the individual self, are impermanent and devoid of any inherent, unchanging essence. This idea challenged prevailing views of a permanent soul or self, and it encouraged a deep sceptical examination of the nature of personal identity and existence.
In the early discourses of Buddhism, the Buddha often employed a method of critical inquiry known as “socratic questioning” to challenge his disciples’ preconceived notions and encourage them to arrive at insights through their own reasoning. This approach promoted a healthy scepticism towards dogmatic beliefs and encouraged practitioners to question, investigate, and verify the teachings for themselves.
The Mahayana school of Buddhism, which emerged around the first century CE, further expanded the scope of scepticism within Buddhist thought. Mahayana texts, such as the “Perfection of Wisdom” sutras, presented profound philosophical ideas that transcended conventional understanding. These texts often challenged the limits of language and conceptual thinking, inviting readers to question the very nature of reality and knowledge.
Nagarjuna, a prominent Mahayana philosopher, is known for his use of the method of prasangika, or reductio ad absurdum, to deconstruct conventional notions and reveal their inherent contradictions. Through this form of sceptical reasoning, Nagarjuna sought to lead his audience beyond the limitations of ordinary understanding and point towards the ultimate truth of emptiness (shunyata).
Tibetan Buddhism also has a rich tradition of sceptical inquiry, particularly in the study of logic and debate. Monastic education in Tibet involves rigorous training in dialectics, where students engage in debates to critically examine Buddhist philosophical views. This emphasis on scepticism and inquiry fosters a deep understanding of the teachings and encourages analytical thinking.
In modern times, Buddhism has encountered scepticism from secular perspectives and scientific scrutiny. Some contemporary Buddhists engage in dialogue with science, seeking areas of convergence and exploring the compatibility of Buddhist ideas with empirical findings. This interaction has led to ongoing discussions on topics like meditation, consciousness, and the potential benefits of Buddhist practices for mental well-being.
5) Scepticism in Hume
David Hume, the 18th-century Scottish philosopher, is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in the history of scepticism. His philosophical writings, especially those on epistemology and causation, challenged prevailing views and had a profound impact on subsequent philosophical thought.
One of Hume’s most notable contributions to scepticism is found in his “An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding,” where he explored the limits of human knowledge. Hume argued that all ideas and beliefs are derived from impressions, which are vivid and direct sensory experiences. He further contended that any knowledge beyond what is immediately present in these impressions is unfounded and susceptible to doubt.
Hume’s famous critique of causation is a prime example of his sceptical approach. He argued that causation is not directly observable but is instead a product of habitual association between events. According to Hume, we cannot establish a necessary connection between cause and effect, as we do not have direct impressions of such a connection. This led him to question the validity of causal inferences, a notion that challenged traditional metaphysical and scientific views.
Furthermore, Hume examined the concept of the self or personal identity. He questioned the idea of a permanent, unchanging self, arguing that introspection only reveals a stream of changing perceptions. According to Hume, the self is nothing more than a bundle of perceptions, and the notion of a continuous, enduring self is an illusion.
In Hume’s sceptical examination of religious beliefs, he argued against claims of miracles and the possibility of gaining knowledge about the divine through revelation. Hume maintained that since miracles are violations of natural laws, and our knowledge of natural laws is based on regularities of observation, it is more reasonable to reject reports of miracles than to accept them. His sceptical stance on religious matters attracted considerable controversy and criticism from religious thinkers of his time.
Despite his radical sceptical challenges, Hume did not advocate for absolute doubt or scepticism in all aspects of life. Instead, he promoted a form of mitigated scepticism, which recognises the limits of human knowledge while accepting the practical necessity of ordinary beliefs and customs.
6) Common Sense Scepticism
Common sense scepticism, also known as ordinary language scepticism or everyday scepticism, refers to a form of sceptical inquiry that arises from questioning everyday beliefs, assumptions, and claims that people tend to take for granted without much critical examination. It is a practical and accessible approach to scepticism, rooted in the recognition that even seemingly obvious or widely accepted ideas may warrant scrutiny.
In common sense scepticism, individuals adopt a questioning attitude towards everyday knowledge claims and engage in critical thinking to evaluate the reasons and evidence behind such claims. This form of scepticism encourages people to avoid blind acceptance of beliefs and to seek reasonable justifications for their beliefs.
One of the central aspects of common sense scepticism is its emphasis on the principle of “extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.” This principle suggests that when faced with extraordinary or extraordinary-sounding claims, individuals should demand more robust evidence before accepting them as true. By doing so, common sense scepticism safeguards against the risk of gullibility and undue credulity.
An essential application of common sense scepticism is in the evaluation of claims related to pseudoscientific or paranormal phenomena. Examples include UFO sightings, psychic abilities, and miracle cures. Instead of accepting such claims uncritically, a common sense sceptic would seek empirical evidence, examine the reliability of witnesses, and consider alternative explanations before arriving at any conclusion.
In addition to scrutinising extraordinary claims, common sense scepticism can also be applied to assess more mundane matters. For instance, when evaluating advertisements or political statements, a sceptical approach involves asking for supporting evidence and verifying the credibility of sources before accepting the claims presented.
Common sense scepticism is not meant to promote wholesale doubt or cynicism, but rather to foster a healthy level of critical thinking and evidence-based reasoning. It is a practical tool for navigating the complexities of modern life and the vast amount of information that we encounter daily. By engaging in common sense scepticism, individuals can make more informed decisions, avoid falling victim to misinformation, and develop a more nuanced understanding of the world around them.
7) Philosophical Scepticism
Philosophical scepticism is a rigorous and systematic form of sceptical inquiry that challenges the possibility of certain knowledge or the reliability of our beliefs. It is a philosophical position that raises doubts about our ability to attain true knowledge about the external world, other minds, or even the nature of reality itself. Philosophical sceptics employ various arguments and methods to question the foundations of human knowledge and to explore the limits of human understanding.
One of the central themes of philosophical scepticism is the problem of the external world. Sceptics question our ability to know with certainty whether there is an external reality that corresponds to our perceptions. They argue that our senses can be deceptive, and there is no foolproof way to bridge the gap between our subjective experiences and an objective reality.
Another significant area of philosophical scepticism concerns the nature of knowledge itself. Sceptics raise the question of whether we can ever be certain about what we claim to know. For example, the “sceptical regress argument” challenges any purported justification for knowledge, as any reason offered can itself be subject to doubt, leading to an infinite regress of justifications.
René Descartes, the 17th-century French philosopher, famously engaged with philosophical scepticism in his quest for foundational certainty. In his “Meditations on First Philosophy,” Descartes employed radical doubt as a methodological approach to clear away all uncertain beliefs and discover an indubitable foundation for knowledge. This led him to the famous conclusion, “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am), asserting that the act of doubt itself demonstrates the existence of a thinking self.
Ancient Greek sceptics, such as Pyrrho of Elis, adopted a different approach to philosophical scepticism. Pyrrho advocated for the suspension of judgment (epochē) in response to conflicting arguments and appearances, promoting a state of tranquillity (ataraxia) attained through the absence of dogmatic beliefs.
It’s essential to note that philosophical scepticism does not necessarily imply nihilism or the rejection of all knowledge. Instead, it is an intellectual exercise that encourages critical reflection and humility in the face of complexity and uncertainty. Philosophical sceptics explore the conditions under which knowledge claims can be warranted, and they often seek to understand the nature of knowledge itself.
8) Absolute Scepticism
Absolute scepticism, also known as radical or global scepticism, is an extreme philosophical position that questions the possibility of any knowledge or certainty about the external world, the existence of the self, or the nature of reality. Unlike other forms of scepticism that may target specific areas of knowledge, absolute scepticism applies its doubt universally and denies the possibility of knowing anything at all.
One of the most well-known expressions of absolute scepticism is found in the writings of the ancient Greek philosopher, Sextus Empiricus. Sextus argued that knowledge is unattainable because any claim to knowledge would require a supporting justification, which in turn would require further justification, leading to an infinite regress of justifications. As a result, no belief can ever be justified with absolute certainty.
The absolute sceptic might assert that since our beliefs are based on fallible senses and cognitive faculties, they are prone to errors and illusions. This line of thought extends to doubt the reliability of reasoning itself, as all reasoning relies on assumptions and inferences that could be flawed.
René Descartes famously engaged with absolute scepticism in his Meditations, using it as a methodological tool to establish a secure foundation for knowledge. By doubting everything, including the existence of the external world, the reliability of his senses, and even the existence of a benevolent deity, Descartes sought to arrive at an indubitable truth: “I think, therefore I am” (Cogito, ergo sum). This was his starting point for rebuilding knowledge on a more secure epistemological basis.
It is important to note that while absolute scepticism is a powerful philosophical exercise that challenges our assumptions and beliefs, it is rarely held as a sustained philosophical position in practice. Few philosophers, if any, maintain absolute scepticism as their permanent stance, as it can lead to a state of intellectual paralysis where no claims can be made or acted upon with confidence.
Some philosophers, rather than embracing absolute scepticism, argue for a more moderate form of scepticism that acknowledges the limitations of human knowledge while still permitting us to make provisional and justified claims in certain contexts. This form of scepticism, known as mitigated or moderate scepticism, recognises the value of empirical evidence and pragmatic reasoning while maintaining a level of epistemic humility.
