Military and Education
1) Military education in Ancient Greece:
With the exception of Sparta, all Greek city-states prioritised producing good citizens over anything else. Children received instruction in politics, music, art, literature, science, and math. For instance, until they were around six years old, boys in Athens received their education at home. Boys then attended school, where they acquired literacy skills. They acquired musical instrument proficiency, mainly the flute or the lyre. They studied Homeric poetry. They acquired debating and persuasive speaking skills.
They took math and science classes. They went to military academy after high school, where they honed their combat skills. Boys did not complete all of the required coursework until they were around 20 years old. The only Greek city-state where girls attended school was Sparta. Their mothers taught them at home. They taught their daughters how to read and write if their mother could, as well as how to cook, sew, and administer a household.
Spartan education was quite different. In Sparta, education had the dual function of building and sustaining a potent army. Boys from Sparta started attending military school around the age of six. They were taught how to read and write, but other than for sending messages, those abilities were not given much weight. On purpose, military school was challenging. The boys frequently felt peckish. They were beaten frequently. They spent the night at the barracks, away from home, with the men. They were often spanked by their own parents if they cried. They learned how to steal, lie, and get away with it from teachers. One day, these abilities might allow them to survive. The Spartan educational system was largely centred around warfare and combat.
Girls in Sparta attended school to become soldiers. All girls in ancient Sparta could wrestle, fist fight, and use a weapon, despite the less severe nature of their school. They received instruction in killing. The Spartans thought that healthy mothers gave birth to healthy children. In addition, if the males were gone at battle, the women might need to defend the city. Sparta produced no outstanding works of art. However, the majority of the other Greek city-states desired Sparta’s support. In times of battle, the Spartans were a tremendous ally.
2) Military education in Ancient Rome:
The striking consistency of Roman educational practises over such a lengthy period of time is the admirable. The same educational institutions, instructional approaches, and curricula were maintained without significant alteration for 1,000 years in Greek and six or seven centuries in Roman territory, despite the major political, economic, and social changes in the Roman world. Only a few subtle differences in change should be noted.
The central government was intervening more and more, but this was mostly to remind the municipalities of their educational responsibilities, to set the pay for teachers, and to oversee their hiring. Only higher education received specific attention; in 425 CE, Theodosius II founded a university in Constantinople, the new capital, and endowed it with 31 seats to teach Greek and Latin rhetoric, law, philosophy, and letters.
Another innovation was that one discipline of technical education, stenography, rose to prominence as a result of the later empire’s frenzied expansion of the bureaucratic apparatus. The use of Greek and Latin is the only change that has occurred to any significant degree. Even while the administrative apparatus was expanding and more people were being lured to the law schools in Beirut and Constantinople, there had never been more than a small number of Greeks who studied Latin.
On the other hand, late antiquity in Latin-speaking areas showed a widespread decline in the usage of Greek. Although being bilingual was always encouraged and the ideal remained the same, less and less of the population was proficient in Greek. Retrogression need not just be seen as a phenomenon of decadence; it also had a good side as a result of the advancement of Latin culture. The depth and value of the Latin classics help to explain why Western youth now have less time than in the past to devote to studying Greek authors. Homer and Demosthenes had been supplanted by Virgil and Cicero, much as in contemporary Europe, the ancient languages had fallen behind the advancement of the national tongues and literatures. As a result, experts in cross-cultural communication and Latin translations began to emerge in the latter empire.
Due to the advent of a vast body of medical (and veterinary) literature that was primarily composed of translations of Greek manuals in the 4th and 5th centuries, medical instruction in Latin became feasible. The same was true of philosophy: continuing Cicero’s work after more than five centuries, Boethius (c. 480–524) strove to make the study of that subject available in Latin through his manuals and translations. Although this goal was not realised due to the disasters of Italy in the sixth century, including the Lombardian invasion, Boethius’ work later fed the mediaeval revival of intellectual thought.
Nothing more clearly exemplifies the prestige and appeal of Classical culture than the Christians’ attitude toward it. This new religion had the opportunity to set up a unique educational system akin to the rabbinical school—one in which students learnt through studying the Holy Scriptures—but it chose not to do so. Most of the time, Christians were happy to obtain their specific religious education from the church and their families as well as their Classical education from the schools and to be shared with the pagans.
They did this by continuing the empire’s traditions after it had become Christian. Since teaching was one of the professions that disqualified one from baptism at the beginning of the third century, they undoubtedly believed that the education provided by these schools must have involved many risks. However, they felt it was necessary to send their children to these same schools where they had forbidden themselves from teaching because of the benefits of Classical culture.
Christian scholars, from Tertullian to St. Basil the Great of Caesarea, were constantly aware of the dangers posed by the study of the classics, as well as the idolatry and immorality that they encouraged; nonetheless, they strove to demonstrate how the Christian may benefit from them. Christianity overcame its reticence with time and the universal conversion of Roman society, notably of its ruling class, and eventually absorbed and replaced Classical education.
Christians had teaching posts at all levels in the fourth century, from the lowest eloquent chairs to those held by schoolmasters and grammarians. St. Augustine laid out the theory of this new Christian culture in his work De doctrina Christiana (426): as a religion of the Book, Christianity required a certain level of literacy and literary understanding; the interpretation of the Bible required grammarian techniques; preaching a new area of action required rhetoric; and theology required philosophical apparatus. When the “barbarian” invasions destroyed the traditional school along with many other imperial and Roman institutions, the church, needing a literary culture for the education of its clergy, kept the cultural tradition that Rome had received from the Hellenistic world alive. This is an example of how closely Christianity and Classical education had come together.
3) Military education in Ancient India:
Prior to learning about military studies, it is crucial to understand the old Indian educational system. The Gurukul system came first. All children, even those of the king, were essentially brought there to attend a residential school.
The following are significant details about the Gurukul system: It was a residential school with a residence for the Guru or teacher. In the Gurukul, the teacher and the pupil shared a room. For almost ten years, students attended the school and studied a variety of disciplines. Language, grammar, physics, math, and vedas were all taught subjects. The Guru also instructed in military matters like use of weapons, training, and the art of war. All pupils, even sons of kings, had to take military courses.
In a gurukul, daily life was difficult and highly regimented. The Gurukul provided boarding and lodging as part of the free education. Free education was offered back then thanks to donations from the king and other wealthy individuals who funded the operation of gurukuls. Living with the teacher and assisting with daily tasks was the idea behind a gurukul. This includes cleaning, cutting wood, and farming. As a result, the students gained knowledge of life’s practical components. As a result, pupils acquired both theoretical and practical knowledge, enabling them to develop into morally upright individuals.
Military science was generally called Dhanurveda. The departments at ashrams or gurukuls were numerous. Mahendrasthana was the name of the department that dealt with military studies. Chariots, elephants, cavalry, and infantry were components of every Indian army. It had the moniker Chaturangabala. Two categories of instruction were used to organise military education. The soldiers’ individual training came first. The second was preparing the army to engage in war as a whole.
All warriors and royal offspring were required to attend Gurukul like everyone else. Every pupil received the same treatment. Dhanurveda, or the art of combat with weapons, was only taught to those who were proficient with weapons. In other words, the first step in mastering the art of combat was attending Gurukul. Ancient professors who would take on this responsibility included both the State and private individuals in the organisation of military instruction. There were military training facilities in every village, where residents received instruction in self-defense.
After completing their basic education in the Gurukulam, people were enlisted as soldiers and divided up into different army groups. Each unit in a war had a distinct function. The cavalry men were skilled horse riders and mounted combatants. Similar to the horseman, the charioteer was a skilled driver who could propel the chariot quickly to the designated location.
The cavalry was not like the elephant army. All of these different army units required specialised training in handling horses, elephants, and other animals as well as in effectively leading them in battle. The troops used to gather in one location every morning to begin training. Usually, physical training was followed by individual weapon use during the training process. Soldiers who handled animals were required to spend time and train with them. The soldiers would be taught by the leaders how to fight as a unit and adhere to the strategies.
There were departments responsible for the administration of the army units in addition to training the soldiers and army units. Officers, men, and handlers were instructed in aspects relating to their work. An elephant handler, for instance, gained knowledge about animal behaviour, animal control, what to feed and when to feed the animal, etc. To keep the warriors in line, officers like the Senapathi needed to be knowledgeable in law and justice. Dhanurveda, Nitishastra, Siksha (legend of elephants and chariots), Alekhya, and Lekhya (Painting and Writing) were among the subjects covered in the princes’ curriculum as well as jumping and swimming. Schooling in the military was substantially different from other types of education. Leaders and soldiers were trained according to their responsibilities and roles in a conflict.
4) Military education before French Revolution:
The educational infrastructure in France was superior to that of any other European nation both before and during the Ancient regime. By the middle of the 16th century, educational activity in France had improved as a result of the Renaissance. However, there was a need for reform because of how poorly scattered the educational institutions were. Despite the fact that France had experienced numerous religious battles, the country was ultimately effectively taken over by the Catholic dominance. We may argue that the government’s engagement in educational issues was not very significant, and that the Catholic church had a significant role in seizing control of the educational system.
The entire French political system was changed during the transition from the Ancient Regime to a constitutional monarchy and subsequently a republic (1789–1992), bringing it into compliance with the Revolutionary ideals of “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.” Particularly with the death of the French king, reactionary Europe resisted. Because Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, and King Frederick William II of Prussia signed the Declaration of Pillnitz and France subsequently declared war, the Republic of France was at war from the moment it was founded and needed a strong military force to preserve its survival. The army was one of the first significant parts of the French state to be reorganised as a result.
The nobility had provided almost the entire officer class of the ancient regime. Many officers abandoned their regiments and left the country in the years before the Monarchy was finally overthrown. 2,160 officers of the royal army left France between September 15 and December 1, 1791, joining Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé’s émigré army. Many of those who remained during the Reign of Terror were either imprisoned or executed.
Since the few old guard officers were promptly promoted, the majority of the Revolutionary officers were considerably younger than their monarchist colleagues. Marquis de la Fayette, Comte de Rochambeau, and Comte Nicolas Luckner were among the high-ranking aristocratic officers who persisted. They were quickly accused of harbouring monarchist inclinations and either executed or sent into exile.
A significant flood of passionate but unskilled and undisciplined volunteers was brought on by revolutionary fervour and calls to save the new rule. These were the first sans-culottes; they got their name from the fact that they wore peasant pants rather than the knee-breeches worn by the other troops at the time. These lads were enlisted into the army right away due to the dire military situation in France. The “amalgamation” (amalgame) strategy developed by military planner Lazare Carnot, subsequently Napoleon’s Minister of War, is one factor in the French Revolutionary Army’s success. He allocated both youthful volunteers who were excited about the prospect of dying for liberty and elderly veterans from the former royal army to the same regiment (although in different battalions).
The officer corps was where the Army’s transition was most noticeable. In 1794, only 3% of the officers were aristocrats, compared to 90% before the revolution. The Committee of Public Safety, which sent Representatives on Mission to oversee the army generals, kept a careful eye on the rising revolutionary fervour. In fact, some generals bailed out during the conflict, while others were fired or killed. The military was required to be obedient to the administration in Paris and not to its generals.
5) Military education in the USA:
The United States Military Academy, also known as West Point Academy, is a college where commissioned officers for the US Army are trained. On March 16, 1802, it was established as a school for the U.S. Corps of Engineers with a class of five officers and ten cadets. One of the first service academies ever established. The academy is currently located on around 16,000 acres (6,000 hectares), 50 miles (80 km) north of New York City, in Orange County, New York, framed by the Hudson Highlands and perched above the Hudson River.
The superintendent, who has been given direct military command over both the academy and the military post, is responsible for the immediate monitoring and control of the academy by the Department of the Army. The educational program’s objective is to instruct and prepare the corps of cadets in order for each graduate to possess the skills and traits necessary to advance over a lifetime career as an officer in the army. An army second lieutenant commission and a bachelor of science degree are the results of the four-year college-level education and training programme. The basic and engineering sciences, the humanities and social sciences, military science, and physical education are all equally represented in the curriculum.
At the time of their assignment, cadets must be at least 17 years old but not yet 23 years old. They must also not be pregnant, be unmarried, and be under no legal responsibility to support children. Before being admitted, they must pass academic aptitude exams and a medical exam and have completed high school or its equivalent. Senators and representatives from the United States make the vast majority of appointments to the academy. More than 15,000 young men and women submit applications for admission to West Point each year.
The nomination stage is reached by about one-fourth of candidates, and admission is deemed appropriate for half of them. Each year, over 1,200 potential cadets—less than 10% of applicants—are admitted. A normal enrolment is around 4,400. If completely eligible, residents of more than 150 other nations may also be admitted to the academy, albeit the total number of international cadets allowed is limited to 60. In 1976, the academy initially permitted the admission of women.
The academic year runs from inclusively August to May. In-depth field training is provided to the third class (sophomores) at the training facilities on the academy reservation. At other army training facilities, the second and first classes (juniors and seniors) receive additional instruction. Along with the midshipmen from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, the second class participates in combined amphibious exercises. First-year students help in training the third class and serve as instructors for the incoming fourth class of freshmen.
