David Hume

1) His Biography

David Hume was born in Edinburgh, Scotland on May 7, 1711. He was the second of two sons born to Joseph Home of Ninewells, an advocate, and his wife The Hon. Katherine Falconer. Hume’s father died when he was a child, and he was raised by his mother and his uncle, who was a professor of law at the University of Edinburgh. Hume received his early education at the University of Edinburgh, where he studied law. However, he found the study of law uninteresting and instead turned his attention to philosophy.

Hume’s first major philosophical work, “A Treatise of Human Nature,” was published in 1739. In this work, Hume argued that the human mind is a collection of perceptions, and that our knowledge of the world comes only from our senses. This idea, known as empiricism, was a significant departure from the traditional philosophical view that knowledge comes from reason. Hume’s work was not well received at the time, and he struggled to gain recognition for his philosophical ideas.

Despite this initial lack of success, Hume continued to write and publish philosophical works throughout his life. In 1748, he published “An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding,” which was a revised and expanded version of “A Treatise of Human Nature.” This work was more successful than Hume’s earlier work, and it established him as a leading figure in the field of philosophy. In addition to his philosophical writings, Hume also wrote on a variety of other topics, including history, politics, and economics.

Hume died on August 25, 1776 in Edinburgh. Despite the initial reception of his work, Hume is now considered one of the most important philosophers in the history of Western philosophy. His empiricist philosophy had a significant influence on the development of modern philosophical thought, and his ideas continue to be studied and discussed by philosophers today.

2) Main Works

A Treatise of Human Nature:

A Treatise of Human Nature is a philosophical work by David Hume, published in 1739. In this work, Hume argues that the human mind is a collection of perceptions, and that our knowledge of the world comes only from our senses. He challenges the traditional philosophical view that knowledge comes from reason, and instead proposes that it comes from sensory experience. Hume also explores the nature of the self, the emotions, and the foundations of morality in this work. Overall, the Treatise is a significant contribution to the field of philosophy and continues to be studied and discussed by philosophers today.

Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary:

David Hume’s “Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary” is a two-volume collection of essays written by Hume and published in 1741 and 1742. The essays cover a wide range of topics, including philosophy, politics, economics, and literature. In these essays, Hume explores his empiricist philosophy, which holds that knowledge comes only from sensory experience. He also discusses the nature of justice, government, and morality, and offers his thoughts on the state of the British economy. In addition to these philosophical and political essays, the collection also includes several literary essays in which Hume offers his thoughts on the works of various writers.

An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding:

“An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding” is a philosophical work by David Hume, published in 1748. In this work, Hume argues that the human mind is a collection of perceptions, and that our knowledge of the world comes only from our senses. This idea, known as empiricism, was a significant departure from the traditional philosophical view that knowledge comes from reason. Hume’s work was more successful than his earlier work, “A Treatise of Human Nature,” and it established him as a leading figure in the field of philosophy.

An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals:

“An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals” was published in 1751. In this work, Hume examines the nature of morality and argues that moral distinctions are not based on reason, but rather on sentiment and emotions. He proposes that moral judgments are based on our feelings of approval or disapproval towards certain actions, rather than on any objective moral principles. Hume also discusses the concept of justice and the idea that individuals have a natural moral sense that allows them to make moral judgments.

The Natural History of Religion:

Published in 1757, this work examines the origins and nature of religious beliefs. Hume argues that religious beliefs are not the result of reason or knowledge, but rather are based on fear and superstition. He proposes that early human beings, lacking the knowledge and understanding to explain natural phenomena, attributed these phenomena to supernatural causes, giving rise to religious beliefs.

3) Main Themes

Induction and causation:

David Hume is best known for his skepticism about causation and induction. Hume’s thoughts on these topics were heavily influenced by his empiricist philosophy, which holds that all knowledge comes from experience and observation.

In Hume’s view, causation is not a matter of necessity or logical necessity. Rather, it is a matter of regularity and constant conjunction. In other words, we perceive two events as causally related because we have repeatedly observed them happening together. However, this regularity does not necessarily imply a necessary connection between the events.

Hume also argued that induction is not a rational process, but rather a psychological one. In other words, we do not reason from specific instances to general laws, but rather we are naturally inclined to expect that events will continue to happen in the same way that they have in the past. This is known as the problem of induction, and it remains a major challenge for philosophers to this day.

In conclusion, Hume’s thoughts about induction and causation highlight the limitations of human knowledge and the importance of experience and observation in shaping our beliefs. While Hume’s skepticism may be troubling to some, it provides a useful reminder to be cautious in our reasoning and to always be open to new evidence and perspectives.

The ‘self’:

In his writings, he addressed the concept of the self and questioned the notion of personal identity. Hume believed that the self is not a fixed and permanent entity, but rather a collection of fleeting impressions and ideas. He argued that when we try to introspect and understand our own consciousness, we are unable to find a single, unified self. Instead, we only discover a constantly changing stream of thoughts, sensations, and emotions.

Hume also rejected the idea of a soul or a metaphysical self that exists independently of the body. He believed that our sense of self is created by the interaction of our perceptions, experiences, and memories. This means that the self is a product of the human mind, rather than a fundamental aspect of human nature.

In Hume’s view, the concept of personal identity is a convenient fiction that we use to make sense of our experiences. He argued that we have a tendency to attribute our thoughts and actions to a single, consistent self, but this is an illusion. In reality, our selves are constantly changing and there is no fixed, enduring self that we can point to.

Overall, Hume’s thoughts about the self-challenge the traditional idea of a permanent, unchanging self and highlight the importance of experience and perception in shaping our sense of self.

Practical reason:

In his thoughts about practical reason, Hume argued that reason itself is not capable of motivating us to action. Instead, it is our passions and emotions that drive our actions and behavior.

According to Hume, reason is a passive faculty that merely serves to evaluate the means to achieving a desired end. It is our passions, such as desire or fear, that actually motivate us to act. Therefore, it is not rational thought that drives our actions, but rather our emotional responses to our circumstances.

Hume also believed that moral judgments are not based on reason, but rather on sentiments and feelings. He argued that moral judgments are not necessarily rational or logical, but rather they are based on our emotional reactions to particular situations.

Additionally, Hume believed that the pursuit of self-interest is a natural and necessary part of human behavior. He argued that individuals are driven by their own desires and interests, and that this pursuit of self-interest is a fundamental aspect of human nature.

Ethics:

In his writings on ethics, Hume argued that morality is not based on rational principles or divine commands, but rather on the sentiments and emotions of individuals.

According to Hume, moral judgments are not objective truths that can be discovered through reason or observation, but rather are subjective opinions that are based on the feelings and emotions of individuals. He believed that our moral judgments are influenced by our experiences and social interactions, and that they are shaped by the customs and traditions of our society.

Hume also argued that our moral judgments are not based on rational principles or logical arguments, but rather on our emotional reactions to situations. He believed that our moral sentiments, such as our feelings of compassion, sympathy, and benevolence, are the primary drivers of our moral decisions and actions.

Hume’s thoughts on ethics have been highly influential in the development of moral philosophy. His ideas about the subjective nature of morality and the role of emotions in moral decision making have been widely debated and discussed by philosophers and scholars. Despite the criticism of his ideas, Hume remains a significant figure in the history of ethics and political philosophy.

Aesthetics:

Hume believed that aesthetic judgments were subjective and that there was no objective standard for beauty. Hume believed that the experience of beauty was a matter of personal taste and that it was not possible to say that something was beautiful in an absolute sense.

According to Hume, the experience of beauty was a result of the interaction between the object and the individual perceiving it. He believed that the object itself was not inherently beautiful, but that the beauty came from the way in which it was perceived by the individual. Hume argued that the individual’s emotional response to the object was what made it beautiful, and that this response was based on personal preferences and experiences.

Hume also believed that aesthetic judgments were not based on reason or logic, but were instead driven by the emotions. He argued that aesthetic judgments were not a matter of fact, but were instead a matter of feeling. Hume believed that the experience of beauty was a matter of personal preference and that it was not possible to say that something was beautiful in an objective sense.

To summarize, Hume’s thoughts on aesthetics were focused on the subjectivity of aesthetic judgments and the role of emotions in the experience of beauty. He believed that beauty was not something that could be measured or quantified, but was instead a matter of personal preference and emotional response.

Free will, determinism, and responsibility:

Hume believed that the idea of free will is a product of the human imagination and not a reality. Hume believed that all events and actions are determined by causes and are therefore not under our control.

Hume argued that when we think about our own actions, we do not experience a sense of control over them. Instead, we simply experience the events of our lives as they unfold. This suggests that our actions are not freely chosen, but rather are determined by a set of causes outside of our control.

Furthermore, Hume believed that the concept of responsibility is based on the assumption of free will. If our actions are not freely chosen, then we cannot be held responsible for them. This means that we cannot be praised or blamed for our actions, as they are not under our control.

In Hume’s view, determinism is a more accurate description of the world than free will. He argued that all events and actions are determined by causes and are therefore not under our control. This means that we cannot be held responsible for our actions, as they are not freely chosen. Instead, we are simply products of the forces that shape our lives.

Economic thought:

Hume’s economic thought was influenced by his belief in the importance of individual freedom and the power of human reason. He believed in the power of free markets and the importance of allowing individuals to make their own economic decisions. He believed that government intervention in the economy should be limited, as it can often lead to inefficiency and waste. Hume also believed in the importance of property rights, arguing that they were essential for the functioning of a free market.

Hume’s economic thought was also influenced by his belief in the importance of trade and commerce. He believed that trade and commerce were essential for the growth and prosperity of a society, and that they should be encouraged and supported. Hume argued that trade and commerce allowed for the exchange of goods and services, leading to increased specialization and productivity.

4) Hume vs Kant

David Hume and Immanuel Kant were two of the most influential philosophers of the Enlightenment era. While they both shared a belief in the importance of reason and the potential for human progress, they had significant differences in their approach to philosophical inquiry.

Hume, a Scottish philosopher, was a skeptic who believed that knowledge was based on experience and sensory perception. He rejected the idea of innate knowledge or a priori truths and instead emphasized the importance of empiricism. Hume also believed that moral judgments were not objective, but rather the product of individual feelings and emotions.

Kant, on the other hand, was a German philosopher who believed in the existence of a priori truths and the power of reason to discover them. He argued that moral judgments were not simply the product of individual feelings, but rather were based on universal moral laws that could be discovered through reason. Kant also believed in the existence of a transcendental realm beyond the material world that could be accessed through pure reason.

One of the key differences between Hume and Kant was their approach to metaphysics. Hume was a skeptic who believed that metaphysical claims could not be proven and were therefore meaningless. Kant, on the other hand, believed in the existence of a transcendental realm and the power of reason to uncover its mysteries.

Another important difference between the two philosophers was their approach to morality. Hume believed that moral judgments were not objective, but rather were based on individual feelings and emotions. Kant, on the other hand, believed in the existence of universal moral laws that could be discovered through reason.

Overall, Hume and Kant represent two different approaches to philosophical inquiry. Hume emphasized the importance of empiricism and skepticism, while Kant believed in the power of reason to uncover universal truths. Despite their differences, both philosophers made significant contributions to the development of modern philosophy.

5) Hume vs Reid

They both had their own unique perspectives on the nature of reality and knowledge, but their views often clashed. Hume was a philosopher of the empiricist tradition, meaning he believed that all knowledge comes from sensory experience. He argued that the mind is a blank slate at birth, and all of our ideas and beliefs come from the impressions we receive from the world around us. Hume believed that causality is not a necessary relationship between events, but rather a habit of the mind to expect one event to follow another based on past experience.

Reid, on the other hand, was a philosopher of the common sense tradition. He believed that there are certain innate ideas and principles that we are born with, and that these provide the foundation for all of our knowledge. Reid argued that causality is a necessary relationship between events, and that we can know this through our innate common sense.

One of the main points of disagreement between Hume and Reid was their views on the nature of perception. Hume argued that all of our perceptions are mere impressions of sensory experience, and that they do not provide us with any true knowledge of the world. Reid, however, believed that our perceptions are reliable indicators of the world around us, and that they provide us with knowledge of the world that is independent of our sensory experiences.

Another point of disagreement between Hume and Reid was their views on the nature of the self. Hume argued that the self is nothing more than a collection of perceptions, and that there is no underlying substance or essence that constitutes the self. Reid, on the other hand, believed that the self is a distinct and independent entity, and that it is the source of our consciousness and our ability to think and act.

The differences between Hume and Reid reflect their different philosophical traditions and their different approaches to the nature of reality and knowledge. While Hume emphasized the role of sensory experience in shaping our ideas and beliefs, Reid believed that we have innate ideas and principles that provide the foundation for our knowledge. Despite their differences, both philosophers had a profound influence on the development of philosophy and continue to be studied and discussed by philosophers today.

6) Locke and Hume

David Hume and John Locke are two of the most influential philosophers of the Enlightenment era. While both men were advocates for empiricism, the belief that knowledge comes from sensory experience, their approaches to philosophy differed in key ways.

Hume, a Scottish philosopher, is best known for his skepticism and rejection of the idea of causation. He argued that our belief in causation is based on habit and custom, rather than logical necessity. Hume believed that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience and that there is no such thing as innate ideas.

Locke, an English philosopher, on the other hand, believed in the existence of innate ideas and argued that our minds are a blank slate at birth. He believed that knowledge comes from sensory experience, but also that some ideas are innate and not derived from experience.

One key difference between Hume and Locke is their views on the nature of the self. Hume believed in the concept of the “bundle theory” of the self, which suggests that the self is composed of a series of perceptions that are constantly changing and cannot be reduced to a single, unified entity. Locke, on the other hand, believed in the concept of the “tabula rasa” or blank slate, which suggests that the self is formed through sensory experience and can be shaped and molded by external factors.

Another key difference is their views on the existence of God. Hume was an atheist and believed that the existence of God cannot be proven through reason or sensory experience. Locke, on the other hand, was a theist and believed in the existence of God as a necessary assumption for understanding the world.

In conclusion, while Hume and Locke both believed in the importance of sensory experience in the acquisition of knowledge, their approaches to philosophy differed in their views on the nature of the self and the existence of God. Hume’s skepticism and rejection of causation set him apart from Locke’s belief in innate ideas and the existence of God.

7) His Legacy

David Hume was a Scottish philosopher and historian who is considered one of the most influential figures in the history of Western philosophy. He is known for his skeptical approach to philosophy, his rejection of religious beliefs, and his emphasis on empirical evidence and reason.

Hume’s most significant contribution to philosophy is his skepticism, which he argued was a necessary foundation for all scientific inquiry and knowledge. He believed that human knowledge is based on experience and that our beliefs about the world are formed through the senses. Hume argued that it is impossible to know anything with certainty and that we should be cautious in our beliefs about the world.

Hume’s rejection of religious beliefs also had a significant impact on philosophy. He argued that religious beliefs are based on superstition and tradition, rather than evidence and reason. Hume’s skepticism extended to the existence of God and the afterlife, which he considered to be unfounded beliefs.

Hume’s legacy is also evident in his emphasis on empirical evidence and reason. He believed that our understanding of the world should be based on observation and experimentation, rather than on speculation and tradition. Hume’s approach to philosophy paved the way for the development of the scientific method and the modern emphasis on evidence-based knowledge.

8) Criticisms

One criticism of David Hume’s philosophy is that his skepticism goes too far. Some argue that his rejection of causation and the self undermines the basis of science and our ability to make rational decisions. Critics argue that Hume’s skepticism leads to a radical skepticism that is not compatible with the way we live our lives.

Another criticism of Hume’s philosophy is that it is overly negative and dismissive of traditional philosophical concepts. Some argue that his rejection of causation and the self is overly dismissive and does not take into account the complexities of these concepts. Critics argue that Hume’s philosophy is too simplistic and fails to provide a satisfactory account of reality.

Some critics also argue that Hume’s skepticism is self-defeating. They argue that Hume’s rejection of causation and the self leads to a skepticism about the reliability of our own beliefs and experiences, which undermines his own philosophical arguments. Critics argue that Hume’s skepticism ultimately undermines itself and is not a viable philosophical position.

Overall, while Hume’s criticisms of traditional philosophical concepts were influential and thought-provoking, they have also faced significant criticisms from other philosophers.

9) Some Quotes

“It is not contrary to reason to prefer the destruction of the whole world to the scratching of my finger.” ~ David Hume

“A wise man proportions his belief to the evidence.” ~ David Hume

“Beauty in things exists in the mind which contemplates them.” ~ David Hume

“Happiness is not an ideal of reason, but of imagination.” ~ David Hume

“Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions.” ~ David Hume