Desire
1) Desire in Plato:
Desire is a concept that has been explored and debated by philosophers for centuries. At its most basic level, desire refers to a strong feeling of wanting or wishing for something to occur. However, the nature and implications of desire are much more complex than this simple definition suggests.
Desire is a central theme in Plato’s philosophy, and it plays a crucial role in his theory of human nature and morality. In the Republic, Plato argues that the human soul is divided into three parts: reason, spirit, and desire. The highest and most important part of the soul is reason, which is responsible for providing us with wisdom and guidance. Spirit, on the other hand, is responsible for our emotions and passions, while desire is the lowest and most base part of the soul, responsible for our appetites and cravings.
According to Plato, desire can be divided into two types: the first type of desire is rational desire, which is the desire for goods that are good in themselves, such as wisdom, justice, and virtue. The second type of desire is irrational desire, which is the desire for goods that are not good in themselves, such as money, power, and pleasure. Plato argues that irrational desire is harmful to the soul because it leads us away from the good and towards the bad.
One of the key ways in which desire causes harm is through the phenomenon of ‘thumos’, or spiritedness. Thumos is a state of mind in which we become attached to a particular object of desire and are willing to fight for it, even if it is not good for us. When our desires become excessive, they can lead to thumos and a breakdown of the harmony between the different parts of the soul. This, in turn, leads to a range of negative consequences, including conflict, injustice, and violence.
Plato also argues that irrational desire can cause harm by leading us away from the truth. He believes that truth and goodness are closely related, and that our pursuit of truth requires us to cultivate a rational desire for the good. If our desires are dominated by irrationality, we will be unable to see the truth and will be led astray by false beliefs and misconceptions.
Despite the dangers posed by desire, Plato does not argue that we should try to eradicate desire entirely. Instead, he argues that we should try to control and regulate our desires so that they do not interfere with our pursuit of the good. This requires us to cultivate self-discipline and self-control, and to resist the temptation to pursue goods that are not truly good.
2) Desire in Aristotle:
Desire is a concept that has been central to the philosophy of Aristotle. In his view, desire is an essential aspect of human nature and is the driving force behind all human action. According to Aristotle, desire is the source of all motivation, and it is what motivates people to pursue their goals and aspirations. In this sense, desire is seen as a fundamental aspect of human psychology and a key element of what makes us human.
Aristotle viewed desires as either natural or irrational. Natural desires are innate to human nature and essential for survival and flourishing, such as hunger, thirst, and the need for shelter and safety. On the other hand, irrational desires are not essential for survival and lack a rational basis, like greed, lust, and the desire for power and fame.
Aristotle believed that natural desires should be pursued and irrational desires should be avoided. Natural desires are necessary for survival and well-being, while irrational desires can lead to harmful or unethical behavior. He believed that using rational thought and self-reflection can help individuals differentiate between natural and irrational desires and align their desires with what is virtuous and good.
Aristotle also believed that desire is not just a psychological state, but is also an ethical state. This means that our desires have ethical implications, and that our actions are shaped by the things that we desire. For example, if we desire to be virtuous, we will act in virtuous ways, and if we desire to be selfish, we will act in selfish ways. Aristotle believed that our actions are a reflection of our desires, and that by controlling our desires, we can control our actions.
Another important aspect of Aristotle’s view of desire is that it is goal-directed. In other words, our desires are not just feelings of wanting or wishing for something, but are also aimed at a specific end or objective. Aristotle believed that our desires are not just random or arbitrary, but are grounded in a deeper understanding of what is truly good and valuable. This means that our desires are not just expressions of our personal preferences, but are also expressions of our values and beliefs.
3) Desire in St. Augustine:
St. Augustine, the influential early Christian philosopher and bishop, had a complex understanding of desire and its role in human life. For Augustine, desire is a central aspect of human experience, as it drives individuals to pursue what they believe will bring them happiness and fulfillment. However, he also recognized that desire can be a source of conflict and suffering, especially when desires are misdirected or unrestrained.
In Augustine’s view, all human desires can be traced back to the desire for God, which is the ultimate source of happiness and fulfillment. He believed that all human beings are created with a natural inclination towards God and that this innate desire for God is what gives meaning and purpose to life. However, this desire for God can become distorted or corrupted by sin, which causes individuals to pursue false or worldly goods instead of God.
Augustine believed that the key to overcoming this corruption of desire is to turn toward God and seek his guidance and grace. He argued that by experiencing God’s love and grace, individuals can develop a greater love for God and a deeper appreciation for the true good of life. Through this process of spiritual growth, individuals can come to understand the difference between true and false desires and begin to order their desires in a way that leads to true happiness and fulfillment.
4) Desire in Ghazali:
Imam Ghazali, a prominent Muslim philosopher and theologian of the 11th century, had a unique perspective on the concept of desire. He believed that all human desires, whether physical or spiritual, stem from the soul’s innate longing for God. In other words, the soul is inherently hungry for divine connection and fulfillment.
According to Ghazali, the soul can become misguided in its pursuit of fulfillment and begin to seek it through worldly desires such as wealth, power, and sensual pleasures. These desires can be harmful to the soul and distract it from its true purpose. Ghazali believed that the only way to achieve true satisfaction and fulfillment is by redirecting one’s desires toward God.
Ghazali emphasized the importance of self-discipline and self-control in guiding one’s desires toward their proper end. He believed that through purifying one’s desires and practicing spiritual exercises, such as prayer and contemplation, the soul can come to experience the ultimate goal of its desire: union with God.
In contrast to some other philosophical traditions, Ghazali saw desire not as a negative force, but as a necessary aspect of the human experience. He believed that it was possible to channel desires in a way that leads to spiritual growth and that desires could be harnessed as a tool for attaining closeness to God.
5) Desire in St. Thomas Aquinas:
St. Thomas Aquinas, a 13th-century Catholic theologian and philosopher, believed that desire, or the inclination to seek after something, is a fundamental aspect of human nature. According to Aquinas, desire is rooted in the innate natural tendencies of the soul and is directed towards obtaining a good, either real or imagined.
Aquinas distinguished between three types of desire: the sensual desire of the body, the concupiscible desire of the sensitive appetite, and the rational desire of the will. Sensual desire is related to the material and physical aspects of life, such as food, drink, and sex. The concupiscible desire is related to emotions and is concerned with love, hatred, and joy. Rational desire is the highest and most perfect form of desire and is the result of the mind’s ability to grasp the truth about a good.
For Aquinas, the ultimate end and purpose of human desire is to attain happiness, which he defined as the ultimate good that all people seek. He believed that this happiness is found in the contemplation of God and the attainment of union with Him. In order to achieve this end, it is necessary to live a life of virtue, which includes cultivating moral virtues and avoiding sin.
Aquinas also believed that there can be disordered desires, which arise from a distorted understanding of the good and a lack of control over the passions. Such disordered desires lead to evil actions and can lead one away from the path to happiness. In order to combat these disordered desires, it is necessary to cultivate the theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity and to live a life of contemplation and prayer.
6) Desire in Descartes:
René Descartes, the father of modern philosophy, had a unique perspective on desire in his philosophical system. Descartes believed that desire is an essential aspect of human nature and that it plays a crucial role in guiding human behavior.
According to Descartes, desire is the source of motivation for all human action. He believed that desires are responsible for driving individuals to pursue certain goals and objectives, and that they are the foundation of our ability to make decisions and take action in the world. Descartes argued that our desires are rooted in our innate nature, and that they reflect our innate tendencies and inclinations.
Descartes believed that our desires are not always in line with reason, and that they can sometimes lead us astray. He argued that the most important aspect of human life is to cultivate the ability to distinguish between good and evil desires. Descartes believed that this could be done through the use of reason, which would help individuals to identify and eliminate desires that are harmful or that are not in line with their true interests.
In addition to the role that desire plays in guiding human action, Descartes also believed that desire is an essential aspect of our inner psychological experience. He argued that our desires are deeply rooted in our emotions, and that they can shape our thoughts and perceptions in profound ways. He believed that it is possible to cultivate desires that are in line with reason, and that this would help individuals to live a more virtuous and fulfilling life.
7) Desire in Kant:
Immanuel Kant, the German philosopher, had a complex understanding of desire and its place in the ethical and moral lives of individuals. According to Kant, desire was seen as an important aspect of human life that can either help or hinder one’s moral progress.
Kant believed that there were two types of desire: pathological desire and practical desire. Pathological desires are those that are based solely on personal enjoyment or pleasure, such as the desire for material goods, luxury, or sexual gratification. These desires are considered to be irrational and can never be satisfied, leading to a constant cycle of wanting and dissatisfaction. On the other hand, practical desires are those that are grounded in reason and are necessary for human survival and flourishing. These desires include things like the desire for food, clothing, and shelter.
For Kant, moral behavior is determined by practical reason and the ability to act in accordance with universal moral laws. The idea of moral law is based on the notion of duty, which is the requirement to act in accordance with moral principles, regardless of one’s personal desires or inclinations. In this sense, Kant believed that desire should be subordinated to reason, and that individuals should strive to act in accordance with moral laws, even if their desires conflict with these laws.
Moreover, Kant believed that moral development and progress were achieved through a process of self-reflection and self-regulation. Individuals must continually assess their desires and actions to determine whether they are in line with universal moral principles. In this sense, the ability to control and regulate one’s desires is crucial for moral progress and the development of a virtuous character.
8) Desire in Kierkegaar:
Desire is a complex and multi-faceted concept that has been explored and analyzed by many philosophers, including Søren Kierkegaard. Kierkegaard was a Danish philosopher who lived in the 19th century and is considered to be one of the founding figures of existentialism. In his works, Kierkegaard reflects on the nature of human desire and how it shapes our experience of the world.
Kierkegaard believed that desire is at the core of our existence and that it drives us to search for meaning and fulfillment. He argued that our desires are the source of our passion and energy, and that they give us a sense of purpose and direction in life. However, Kierkegaard also recognized that our desires can lead us astray, and that they can sometimes cause us to pursue goals and objects that are not truly fulfilling.
Kierkegaard’s views on desire are rooted in his understanding of human psychology and the nature of human consciousness. He believed that our desires are often influenced by unconscious forces and that they are not always rational or well-understood. This can lead us to experience feelings of doubt, confusion, and frustration, which can prevent us from finding true fulfillment and happiness.
Kierkegaard argued that the key to overcoming these challenges is to become aware of our desires and to understand their underlying motivations. He believed that by doing this, we can gain a deeper understanding of ourselves and our place in the world, and that we can find a path to true fulfillment. He encouraged individuals to embrace their desires, to question their motivations, and to seek out a deeper understanding of the world and their place within it.
9) Desire in Heidegger:
Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher who lived from 1889 to 1976. He is best known for his works on ontology, or the study of being, and for his contribution to existentialism. In his philosophy, Heidegger has a unique perspective on desire, which can be understood through his concepts of authenticity and inauthenticity.
For Heidegger, desire is not a singular concept but rather a complex and dynamic experience. Desire is a manifestation of our being-in-the-world, and it arises from the encounter between our individual selves and the world around us. This encounter can be either authentic or inauthentic.
Authenticity, for Heidegger, refers to the state of being true to oneself and to one’s own understanding of the world. Authentic desire arises from our individual experience of the world and is rooted in our unique being-in-the-world. It is an expression of our individuality and our connection to the world around us.
In contrast, inauthentic desire arises from our alienation from the world and from ourselves. Inauthentic desire is characterized by a lack of understanding of the world and a disconnection from our own individuality. It is driven by a search for security, comfort, and pleasure, rather than by a genuine connection to the world and to ourselves.
For Heidegger, inauthentic desire is a manifestation of the fallenness of humanity, which he describes as a condition of being caught up in the every day and being lost in the pursuit of pleasure, comfort, and security. This state of fallenness leads us to an obsession with external objects, which we pursue in an attempt to satisfy our desires.
Heidegger argues that in order to overcome inauthentic desire and achieve authenticity, we must cultivate an understanding of our own individuality and of our place in the world. This requires us to reflect on our own experiences and to engage in a process of self-discovery. Through this process, we can come to a deeper understanding of the world and of ourselves, and we can cultivate a more authentic relationship with the world and with ourselves.
10) Desire in Sartre:
Jean-Paul Sartre, a 20th-century French philosopher and writer, had a unique understanding of desire. Sartre believed that desire is a fundamental aspect of human existence, shaping our identity and motivating our actions. In his view, desire is not just a drive or a feeling, but a manifestation of our freedom and our search for meaning.
For Sartre, human beings are fundamentally free, and desire is a way of expressing this freedom. We desire because we are not complete, and we are searching for a way to fulfill ourselves. Our desires are shaped by our past experiences, our beliefs and values, and our social and cultural context, but they are also shaped by our freedom to choose and to create ourselves.
Sartre also believed that desire is a form of transcendence, meaning that it goes beyond our immediate circumstances and connects us to something larger than ourselves. Desire is a way of reaching out to the world, of creating new possibilities and new ways of being. However, this transcendence can also lead to disappointment, frustration, and even despair, when our desires are not fulfilled.
For Sartre, desire is not just about what we want, but also about what we do not want. He believed that our desires are rooted in our lack, and that we are constantly trying to fill this lack. This leads to a constant cycle of desire, frustration, and desire again.
Sartre also believed that desire is never static, but always in flux. Our desires change over time, reflecting our growth and development as individuals and our changing circumstances. Moreover, desire is not something that can be fully satisfied, but is always pointing to something beyond itself.
