1) Pascal as Existentialist
Blaise Pascal, the 17th-century French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher, is often considered a precursor to existentialist thought. While he lived long before existentialism became an established philosophical movement, his writings contain themes and ideas that resonate with existentialist thinking.
Pascal’s existentialist connection primarily lies in his exploration of the human condition, the anguish of existence, and the quest for meaning in a seemingly indifferent universe. One of his most famous works, the “Pensées” (Thoughts), is a collection of fragmented reflections on various aspects of life, faith, and human nature. In these writings, Pascal grapples with the profound questions that existentialists would later delve into.
Pascal acknowledges the human capacity for reason and rationality, but he also highlights the limitations of human knowledge. He famously argued for the existence of God through his famous “wager,” suggesting that belief in God is a rational choice because the potential rewards of faith (eternal happiness) far outweigh the risks (the absence of divine existence). This perspective aligns with existentialist ideas about the subjective nature of belief and the importance of individual choice in matters of faith.
Furthermore, Pascal touches on the idea of despair, a central theme in existentialism. He recognises the inherent emptiness and restlessness that can afflict human beings when they confront the void or lack of meaning in life. This existential anguish, he suggests, can be alleviated through faith and a personal relationship with God. In this sense, Pascal offers a form of existential consolation through religious belief.
Pascal’s existentialist influence extends to his thoughts on the human condition, particularly his recognition of the inherent tension between reason and passion. He argues that humans are torn between the rational intellect and their emotional desires. Existentialists would later explore the conflict between reason and emotion as an essential aspect of human existence and the basis for many existential dilemmas.
2) Kierkegaard as Existentialist
Søren Kierkegaard, a 19th-century Danish philosopher, is often regarded as one of the pioneers of existentialism. His philosophical ideas and writings laid the foundation for many existentialist themes and concepts that would later become central to the movement. In this discussion, we will explore Kierkegaard’s contributions to existentialism.
Kierkegaard’s existentialist connection can be traced through his profound exploration of individual subjectivity and the inherent tension between the individual and society. He emphasized the importance of individual choice and personal responsibility in the face of existential dilemmas. Kierkegaard’s works, such as “Fear and Trembling” and “The Sickness Unto Death,” delve into the complexities of human existence and the quest for authenticity.
One of Kierkegaard’s central ideas that resonates with existentialism is the concept of “anxiety.” He believed that humans experience existential anxiety when confronted with the immense freedom and responsibility of making choices. This anxiety arises from the awareness of the infinite possibilities available to individuals and the fear of making the wrong decisions. Existentialists, too, would later explore the idea of anxiety as an integral part of human existence.
Kierkegaard’s critique of the conformist tendencies of his society aligns with existentialist themes of alienation and the struggle for authenticity. He saw how the prevailing societal norms and religious dogmas could stifle individuality and authentic self-expression. Existentialists would later expand upon these ideas, emphasizing the need for individuals to break free from societal constraints to discover their true selves.
Another key aspect of Kierkegaard’s existentialist influence is his exploration of faith and religious existence. He argued that faith is a deeply personal and subjective commitment, not merely a matter of adherence to doctrine or tradition. This perspective on faith as a personal, passionate leap aligns with existentialist ideas about the importance of individual choice and the role of personal experience in shaping one’s beliefs.
Furthermore, Kierkegaard’s use of pseudonyms in his writings reflects his exploration of different subjective perspectives and voices. This technique anticipates existentialist notions of existential choice and the multiplicity of individual experiences. Existentialists like Jean-Paul Sartre would later emphasise the idea that individuals are condemned to be free, forced to make choices that define their existence.
3) Tillich and Existentialism
Paul Tillich, a 20th-century German-American theologian and philosopher, is known for his profound contributions to existentialist thought, particularly within the context of Christian theology. Tillich’s ideas and writings bridge the gap between theology and existentialism, addressing fundamental questions about human existence, meaning, and the relationship between faith and doubt.
One of Tillich’s key contributions to existentialism lies in his exploration of the concept of “ultimate concern.” He argued that every person has an ultimate concern, a deep and foundational focus that shapes their life and provides a sense of meaning. This idea resonates with existentialist themes of individual authenticity and the search for significance in a seemingly indifferent universe. Existentialists often emphasise the importance of personal commitment and passion, similar to Tillich’s concept of ultimate concern.
Tillich also engaged with existentialist ideas regarding human anxiety. He believed that anxiety is an essential aspect of human existence, arising from the confrontation with the “ultimate concern” and the awareness of one’s finitude. This existential anxiety, for Tillich, serves as a catalyst for self-discovery and the search for meaning. Existentialists similarly explore anxiety as a central theme in human existence and often view it as a driving force behind philosophical and personal introspection.
Furthermore, Tillich’s theological perspective on the relationship between faith and doubt aligns with existentialist notions of existential choice. He argued that faith and doubt are intertwined, and true faith involves confronting doubt and embracing it as part of the human condition. This view resonates with existentialism’s emphasis on individual responsibility and the importance of confronting life’s uncertainties.
Tillich’s writings also address the role of symbols and language in religious and existential discourse. He believed that symbols, when used correctly, can convey profound existential and religious truths. This perspective influenced existentialist thinkers who explored the limitations and possibilities of language in conveying the complexities of human existence.
4) Bultman as Existentialist
Rudolf Bultmann, a prominent German Lutheran theologian in the 20th century, is often associated with existentialism due to his efforts to reinterpret Christian theology in light of existentialist philosophy. Bultmann’s work played a crucial role in bridging the gap between Christian theology and existentialism, and his ideas continue to be influential in both theological and existentialist circles.
One of the key aspects of Bultmann’s existentialist connection lies in his emphasis on demythologization. He argued that many elements of traditional Christian theology, such as miraculous events and supernatural beings, needed to be demythologized to make Christianity relevant to modern individuals. This demythologization aligns with existentialist themes of confronting the human condition without relying on supernatural explanations, emphasizing the need for personal responsibility and engagement with life’s challenges.
Bultmann also explored the concept of existential authenticity within a Christian context. He believed that faith should not be reduced to mere intellectual assent but should involve a profound existential commitment. This perspective resonates with existentialist ideas about the importance of personal engagement, choice, and commitment in the face of life’s uncertainties.
Furthermore, Bultmann’s approach to interpreting the New Testament, particularly the writings of the apostle Paul, reflects existentialist influences. He argued that the New Testament should be understood as addressing the existential concerns of the people of its time, emphasizing themes of sin, guilt, and salvation. This existential interpretation aligns with existentialism’s focus on individual existence, personal struggle, and the quest for meaning.
Bultmann also grappled with the question of faith in a secular age. He acknowledged the challenges of maintaining Christian faith in a world that increasingly questioned traditional religious beliefs. His approach to this dilemma, which involved focusing on the existential core of Christianity rather than rigid dogmas, reflects existentialist themes of individual choice and adaptation to changing circumstances.
Additionally, Bultmann’s rejection of a supernatural worldview and his emphasis on the “here and now” align with existentialism’s emphasis on the present moment and the importance of living authentically in the face of life’s uncertainties.
5) Jaspers as Existentialist
Karl Jaspers, a 20th-century German psychiatrist and philosopher, is often regarded as a prominent existentialist thinker, although he did not identify himself explicitly as an existentialist. His philosophical contributions, particularly in the areas of existential philosophy and existential psychiatry, bear significant affinities with existentialism, and his work has had a lasting impact on the development of existentialist thought.
One of the primary connections between Karl Jaspers and existentialism is his exploration of human existence and the existential dimension of human life. Jaspers emphasised the importance of individual existence, personal freedom, and the experience of anxiety as essential aspects of the human condition. These themes closely align with existentialist concerns about authenticity, choice, and the inherent anxiety that accompanies human existence.
Existentialists often discuss the concept of “authenticity,” which involves living in accordance with one’s true self and values. Jaspers, too, was concerned with authenticity and the idea of self-realisation. He believed that individuals should strive to become their true selves by embracing their inner freedom and making choices that reflect their authentic values. This perspective resonates with existentialist ideas about the responsibility of individuals to create meaning in their lives through their choices.
Furthermore, Jaspers was instrumental in expanding existentialist thought into the realm of psychiatry. He developed the concept of “Existenzphilosophie” (philosophy of existence) as a foundation for understanding mental illness and psychological suffering. Jaspers argued that existential crises and a loss of meaning could contribute to mental health issues, a perspective that influenced existentialist psychiatrists like R.D. Laing and Viktor Frankl.
Another area where Jaspers’ ideas intersect with existentialism is his exploration of transcendence. He suggested that individuals could transcend their immediate experiences and limitations through acts of self-transcendence and by engaging with the broader world and its philosophical, ethical, and spiritual dimensions. This emphasis on transcendence and the quest for meaning aligns with existentialist concerns about the search for significance in a seemingly indifferent universe.
Karl Jaspers also contributed to existentialist discussions on the limits of reason and language in addressing fundamental questions about existence and meaning. He recognised that some aspects of human existence were beyond the scope of traditional philosophical or scientific analysis, highlighting the importance of intuition, insight, and subjective experience—an idea that resonates with existentialist explorations of the ineffable aspects of human existence.
6) Unamuno as Existentialist
Miguel de Unamuno, a Spanish philosopher, writer, and intellectual of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, is often considered a precursor to existentialism and is known for his philosophical explorations that align with key existentialist themes, even though he predates the formal establishment of existentialism as a philosophical movement.
One of the most significant connections between Miguel de Unamuno and existentialism lies in his intense focus on the individual’s inner world and the inner conflict that characterises human existence. Unamuno was deeply concerned with the struggle between reason and passion, faith and doubt, and the quest for personal authenticity. These themes resonate strongly with existentialist ideas about the human condition.
Unamuno’s philosophy revolves around the concept of “the tragic sense of life.” He believed that human existence was marked by an inherent sense of tragedy, arising from the confrontation with the limitations of reason and the inevitability of death. This tragic perspective aligns with existentialist notions of existential anguish and the confrontation with the absurdity of life.
Furthermore, Unamuno’s exploration of the concept of “vita meramente” (merely living) reflects existentialist concerns about the danger of living an unexamined and unauthentic life. He argued that many people go through life without truly engaging with its fundamental questions, choosing comfort and routine over introspection and self-examination. This mirrors existentialism’s emphasis on the importance of personal engagement and authenticity in confronting the challenges of existence.
Unamuno’s deep philosophical and theological inquiries also align with existentialist themes related to the search for meaning and the tension between faith and doubt. He grappled with questions about the existence of God, the afterlife, and the purpose of life, often highlighting the profound uncertainty that accompanies these existential dilemmas. Existentialists, too, explore the role of doubt and the individual’s responsibility in shaping their beliefs.
Moreover, Unamuno’s style of writing, marked by introspective essays and personal reflections, anticipates the existentialist tradition of using literary and philosophical works to explore the complexities of human existence. Existentialist philosophers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus would later employ similar approaches in their writings.
7) Main Tenets of Christian Existentialism
Christian existentialism, as an intellectual and philosophical movement, encompasses a range of ideas and perspectives influenced by thinkers such as Blaise Pascal, Søren Kierkegaard, Paul Tillich, Rudolf Bultmann, Karl Jaspers, and Miguel de Unamuno. Despite their diverse contributions, several main tenets can be identified that characterize the core principles of Christian existentialism.
Christian existentialism places a strong emphasis on the individual’s existence and subjective experience. Existentialist philosophers, including Kierkegaard and Unamuno, stress that each person’s existence is unique and must be confronted with authenticity. This existential focus aligns with Christian thought’s recognition of the individual’s profound significance in God’s eyes.
Existential anxiety, or the sense of unease arising from the uncertainties of life and the human condition, is a central theme in Christian existentialism. Kierkegaard, in particular, explored the concept of dread or anxiety, highlighting the human struggle to find meaning in the face of life’s uncertainties. This existential anguish mirrors the Christian notion of the “dark night of the soul” or spiritual crisis.
Christian existentialism grapples with the relationship between faith and doubt. Kierkegaard and Bultmann, for instance, argue that genuine faith requires confronting doubt and embracing it as part of the religious experience. This approach aligns with Christian existentialism’s exploration of the complexities of belief and the human struggle to maintain faith in a secular or uncertain world.
The concept of authenticity, which involves living in accordance with one’s true self and values, is central to Christian existentialism. Existentialist thinkers like Kierkegaard and Jaspers emphasise the importance of individual choice and personal responsibility in shaping one’s existence. In a Christian context, this can be seen as the responsibility to live out one’s faith genuinely and authentically.
Christian existentialism, influenced by thinkers like Tillich, recognises the human quest for meaning and significance. Tillich’s concept of “ultimate concern” and Unamuno’s exploration of the tragic sense of life reflect the existential search for purpose in a seemingly indifferent universe. In this context, faith often serves as a means of finding meaning amid life’s uncertainties.
Existentialists like Jaspers and Tillich emphasise the importance of transcendence—going beyond oneself—whether through philosophical, ethical, or spiritual engagement. This idea aligns with the Christian belief in transcending the self in communion with God and in service to others.
Many Christian existentialists, including Bultmann and Unamuno, challenge traditional religious dogmas and advocate for a more personal, subjective approach to faith. They often call for a reinterpretation of Christian beliefs in light of existential questions, emphasising the need for a living, evolving faith.