1) What is Li?
“Li” (
In the metaphysical sense, Li represents the ultimate, universal principles that underlie reality. These principles are eternal, immutable, and universal, providing the framework for the cosmos.
In the moral and ethical realm, Li represents the proper way of behaving, the moral order that humans should follow. It is the guideline for virtuous behaviour and righteous conduct, aligning human actions with the greater cosmic order.
Li is often discussed in conjunction with “Qi” (
In Confucian philosophy, particularly in the teachings of Zhu Xi and other Neo-Confucians, Li is central to understanding human nature and moral cultivation. It is believed that by understanding and aligning oneself with Li, individuals can achieve moral perfection and social harmony.
The concept of Li has had a profound influence on Chinese culture, ethics, and governance. It has shaped the development of social norms, legal systems, and educational practices, emphasising the importance of order, hierarchy, and moral integrity.
While there is no exact equivalent in Western philosophy, Li can be loosely compared to concepts such as natural law, logos, or the principles of rationality and order found in Greek and Enlightenment thought.
2) Platonic Form and Li:
The concept of “Li” in Chinese philosophy and “Forms” in Platonic philosophy, while originating from different cultural and intellectual traditions, share a striking affinity in their roles as fundamental principles that explain the nature of reality and guide human understanding. Both concepts serve as foundational ideas that underpin the metaphysical and epistemological frameworks of their respective philosophies, offering a means to comprehend the world beyond mere physical appearances.
In Plato’s philosophy, the theory of Forms posits that there exists a realm of perfect, immutable, and eternal Forms or Ideas that represent the true essence of all things. According to Plato, the material world that we perceive through our senses is merely a shadow or imperfect reflection of this higher realm of Forms. For example, a particular chair in the physical world is an imperfect manifestation of the ideal Form of “Chairness,” which exists in the realm of Forms. This ideal Form is unchanging and represents the true essence of what it means to be a chair.
Similarly, in Chinese philosophy, particularly in Neo-Confucianism, Li refers to the underlying principles or patterns that govern the natural world and human existence. Li is the rational order of the universe, the inherent structure and principles that dictate the way things are and should be. Just as Plato’s Forms are the true reality behind the physical manifestations, Li represents the fundamental order that underlies all phenomena.
Both Li and Platonic Forms are concerned with the search for deeper, universal truths that transcend the physical world. They offer a way to understand the nature of reality by looking beyond the transient and imperfect material objects to the eternal and unchanging principles that define their true essence. In this sense, both concepts challenge us to think beyond appearances and seek a higher level of understanding.
Moreover, both Li and the Forms have ethical and moral dimensions. In Platonic philosophy, the Form of the Good is the highest and most important of all Forms, representing the ultimate principle that guides moral and ethical behaviour. For Plato, understanding the Form of the Good is essential for achieving a just and virtuous life. Similarly, in Confucian thought, Li encompasses the moral order that humans should follow. It represents the proper way of behaving and the ethical guidelines that align human actions with the greater cosmic order. By understanding and aligning oneself with Li, individuals can achieve moral perfection and social harmony.
Despite these similarities, there are also notable differences between the two concepts. Platonic Forms exist in a separate, transcendent realm, accessible only through intellectual contemplation and philosophical reasoning. In contrast, Li is immanent in the world, inherent in the natural order and discoverable through the study of nature and human affairs. This difference reflects the broader distinction between the transcendental nature of Western metaphysics and the immanent, this-worldly focus of Chinese philosophy.
Furthermore, the methods of accessing and understanding these principles differ. Plato emphasizes dialectical reasoning and philosophical inquiry as the means to apprehend the Forms, while the Neo-Confucian approach to understanding Li involves a combination of moral self-cultivation, study of the classics, and observation of the natural world.
3) Natural Order and Li:
The concept of “Li” in Chinese philosophy is intricately connected to the idea of natural order, serving as the underlying principle that organizes and sustains the cosmos. In understanding Li, we gain insight into how ancient Chinese thinkers conceptualized the universe and human existence within it. This exploration reveals a profound respect for the harmony and interconnectedness of all things, a theme central to both Daoist and Confucian thought.
Li, often translated as “principle” or “pattern,” represents the fundamental laws that govern the natural world. It is the intrinsic order that dictates the behavior and relationships of all entities, from the smallest particles to the vast cosmos. This order is not imposed from the outside but is inherent in the nature of things themselves. In this way, Li is akin to the scientific laws of nature, but it encompasses a broader and more holistic understanding of order, extending to ethical and moral dimensions.
In Daoism, the natural order is emphasized through the concept of Dao (
Confucianism, on the other hand, applies the concept of Li more directly to human society and morality. Confucius and his followers believed that the natural order, as represented by Li, should be reflected in human conduct and social institutions. Just as the natural world operates according to rational principles, human society should be governed by ethical norms and rituals (also called “Li” in Confucian terminology, though with a different emphasis). These norms and rituals are not arbitrary but are grounded in the natural order and are designed to cultivate virtue and maintain social harmony.
The Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi (1130-1200) played a pivotal role in elaborating the concept of Li, integrating it with the broader metaphysical framework. Zhu Xi argued that Li is the underlying principle of all things, providing the structure and coherence of the universe. He posited that every object and phenomenon has its own specific Li, which is part of the larger, universal Li. Understanding and aligning with these principles is essential for both personal cultivation and social harmony.
The relationship between Li and the natural order also extends to the concept of Qi (
In practical terms, the idea of Li as the natural order encourages a way of life that respects and follows the inherent patterns of nature. This can be seen in traditional Chinese practices such as feng shui (
4) Li in neo-Confucian literature:
In Neo-Confucian literature, the concept of “Li” (
Zhu Xi, perhaps the most influential Neo-Confucian scholar, elaborated extensively on Li. He posited that Li is the underlying principle of all things in the universe, providing their essential structure and order. According to Zhu Xi, everything in the cosmos has its own specific Li, which is part of the greater, universal Li. He famously stated that Li is like a pattern or principle that exists within everything, from the smallest grain of sand to the entire universe. Understanding and aligning oneself with Li was seen as crucial for personal moral cultivation and societal harmony.
Cheng Yi, another prominent Neo-Confucian thinker, contributed significantly to the concept of Li by integrating it with the notion of Qi (
A key practice in Neo-Confucianism is the “investigation of things” (gewu zhizhi), which involves a disciplined inquiry into the principles (Li) underlying the natural and human worlds. This practice, advocated by Zhu Xi, encourages individuals to study the world meticulously, seeking to understand the patterns and principles that govern all phenomena. By doing so, one can attain a deeper knowledge of Li and thus cultivate moral virtues. This method reflects the Neo-Confucian belief that intellectual and moral development are interconnected.
In Neo-Confucian literature, Li is not only a metaphysical principle but also a guide for ethical behavior. The concept of Li encompasses the proper relationships and behaviors that sustain social order and harmony. Neo-Confucians believed that by understanding and adhering to these principles, individuals could achieve moral perfection and contribute to a harmonious society. This ethical dimension of Li is closely tied to the Confucian emphasis on virtues such as righteousness, propriety, and filial piety.
Neo-Confucian scholars like Zhu Xi also explored the relationship between human nature (xing,
Education plays a vital role in Neo-Confucianism as a means of understanding and embodying Li. Zhu Xi and other Neo-Confucian scholars emphasized the importance of studying the Confucian classics, engaging in rigorous intellectual inquiry, and practicing ethical self-discipline. Education is seen as a lifelong process of aligning oneself with Li, thereby achieving personal and societal harmony.
Neo-Confucian literature often discusses Li in the context of both cosmic and social order. On a cosmic level, Li represents the fundamental principles that govern the universe. On a social level, Li dictates the proper relationships and roles within society, such as those between ruler and subject, parent and child, and husband and wife. By understanding and adhering to these principles, individuals can maintain social harmony and fulfill their roles within the greater cosmic order.